Graham, Martha

born May 11, 1894, Allegheny county, Penn., U.S.

died April 1, 1991, New York, N.Y.

U.S. dancer, teacher, choreographer, and foremost exponent of modern dance.

She studied from 1916 with Ted Shawn at the Denishawn School of Dancing and Related Arts, then left in 1923 for New York, where she founded her own school in 1927 and a performing company in 1929. She choreographed more than 160 works, creating unique "dance plays" and using a variety of themes to express emotion and conflict. Many are based on American themes, including Appalachian Spring (1944); other works include Primitive Mysteries (1931), El Penitente (1940), Letter to the World (1940), Cave of the Heart (1946), Clytemnestra (1958), Phaedra (1962), and Frescoes (1978). She collaborated for many years with Louis Horst, her musical director, and with Isamu Noguchi, who designed many of her sets. She retired from dancing in 1970 but continued to teach and choreograph. Her technique became the first significant alternative to classical ballet, and her influence extended worldwide through her choreography and her students.

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▪ American dancer

Introduction

born May 11, 1894, Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.

died April 1, 1991, New York, New York

      influential American dancer, teacher, and choreographer of modern dance, whose ballets and other works were intended to “reveal the inner man.” Over more than 50 years she created more than 180 works, from solos to large-scale works, in most of which she herself danced. She gave modern dance new depth as a vehicle for the intense and forceful expression of primal emotions.

Early life and works

      Graham was one of three daughters of a physician who was particularly interested in the bodily expression of human behaviour. After some time in the South, her family settled in 1909 in Santa Barbara, California, where she discovered the rhythm of the sea and became acquainted with Oriental art, influences that were to be evident in her choreography throughout her career.

      Graham's professional career began in 1916 at Denishawn (Denishawn School of Dancing and Related Arts), the schools and dance company founded in Los Angeles by Ruth St. Denis (St. Denis, Ruth) and Ted Shawn (Shawn, Ted), where as a teenager she was introduced to a repertory and curriculum that, for the first time in the United States, explored the world's dances—folk, classical, experimental, Oriental, and American Indian. She was entranced by the religious mysticism of St. Denis, but Shawn was her major teacher; he discovered sources of dramatic power within her and then channeled them into an Aztec ballet, Xochitl. The dance was a tremendous success both in vaudeville and in concert performance and made her a Denishawn star.

      Graham remained with Denishawn until 1923, and, although she ultimately rebelled violently against its eclecticism, she later mirrored in her own works the Orientalism that pervaded the school. She left Denishawn to become a featured dancer in the Greenwich Village Follies revue, where she remained for two years. In 1924 she went to the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York, to teach and to experiment.

      Graham made her New York City debut as an independent artist in 1926. Though some of the fruits of her experiments were discernible from the first, a good many of her dances, such as Three Gopi Maidens and Danse Languide, echoed her Denishawn past. The critics found her to be graceful and lyrical. All of that changed with her 1927 concert, and, for the next decade and more, the startlingly original dances she performed were to be referred to as ugly, stark, and obscure. The exotic costumes and rich staging of Denishawn were in the past. Among the dances of her 1927 program was Revolt, probably the first dance of protest and social comment staged in the United States, which was set to the avant-garde music of Arthur Honegger (Honegger, Arthur). The audience was not impressed; dancers and theatregoers, famous and unknown, ridiculed her. Graham herself later referred to this decade as “my period of long woolens,” a reference to the plain jersey dress that she wore in many of her dances.

      A strong and continuing influence in her life was Louis Horst (Horst, Louis), musical director at Denishawn, who had left the school two years after Graham. He became her musical director, often composing pieces for her during her first two decades of independence; they remained close until his death in 1964. Among his most noted scores for her were those for the now historic Frontier (1935), a solo dance, and Primitive Mysteries, written for Graham and a company of female dancers.

      Frontier initiated the use of decor in Graham's repertoire and marked the beginning of a long and distinguished collaboration with the noted Japanese-American sculptor Isamu Noguchi (Noguchi, Isamu), under whose influence she developed one of her most singular stage (stage design) innovations, the use of sculpture, or three-dimensional set pieces, instead of flats and drops.

Maturity

      For Martha Graham, the dance, like the spoken drama, can explore the spiritual and emotional essence of human beings. Thus, the choreography of Frontier symbolized the frontier woman's achievement of mastery over an uncharted domain. In Night Journey (1948), a work about the Greek legendary figure Jocasta, the whole dance-drama takes place in the instant when Jocasta learns that she has mated with Oedipus, her own son, and has borne him children. The work treats Jocasta rather than Oedipus as the tragic victim, and shows her reliving the events of her life and seeking justification for her actions. In Letter to the World (1940), a work about Emily Dickinson (Dickinson, Emily), several characters are used to portray different aspects of the poet's personality.

      For more than 10 years Graham's dance company consisted solely of women, but her themes were beginning to call for men as well. She engaged Erick Hawkins, a ballet dancer, to join her company, and he appeared with her in a major work, American Document (1938). Though she and Hawkins were married in 1948, the marriage did not last.

 In a career spanning more than half a century, Graham created a succession of dances, ranging from solos to large-scale creations of full-program length such as Clytemnestra (1958). For her themes she almost always turned to human conflicts and emotions. The settings and the eras vary, but her great gallery of danced portraits never failed to explore the inner emotional life of their characters. She created some dances from American frontier life, the most famous of which is Appalachian Spring (1944), with its score by Aaron Copland (Copland, Aaron). Another source was Greek (Greek mythology) legend, the dances rooted in Classical Greek dramas, stories, and myths. Cave of the Heart (1946), based on the figure of Medea, with music by Samuel Barber (Barber, Samuel), was not a dance version of the legend but rather an exposure of the Medea latent in every woman who, out of consuming jealousy, not only destroys those she loves but herself as well. Later works by Graham also borrowed from Greek legend, including Errand into the Maze (1947), an investigation of hidden fears presented through the symbols of the Minotaur and the labyrinth; Alcestis (1960); Phaedra (1962); and Circe (1963). Biblical themes and religious figures also inspired her: Seraphic Dialogue (1955; Joan of Arc), Embattled Garden (1958; referring to the Garden of Eden), and Legend of Judith (1962) and such fanciful abstractions as Diversion of Angels (1948) or Acrobats of God (1960). Her later works include The Witch of Endor (1965), Cortege of Eagles (1967), The Archaic Hours (1969), Mendicants of Evening (1973), Lucifer (1975), The Owl and the Pussycat (1978), and Frescoes (1980). In the early 1980s she created neoclassical dances, beginning with Acts of Light (1981). In 1970 she announced her retirement as a dancer, but she continued to create dances and to teach.

Assessment

      Martha Graham created a dance technique that became the first significant alternative to the idiom of classical ballet. As the dancer Alma Guillermoprieto has pointed out, Graham was “the first creator of modern dance to devise a truly universal dance technique out of the movements she developed in her choreography.” Her dance language was intended to express shared human emotions and experiences, rather than merely provide decorative displays of graceful movements. The dances were also intended to evoke a visceral response in the audience rather than be comprehended in primarily linear or pictorial terms. Many of her dances feature forceful, angular movements originating in spasms of muscular contraction and release centred in the dancer's pelvis. These expressive contractions help generate the strong sexual tension that is a feature of so many of Graham's works. The resulting dance vocabulary is startlingly unlike that of classical ballet in its jagged and angular lines, and its dislocations and distortions that express intensely felt human emotion. Her technique is the most highly developed body-training method in the entire field of modern dance, requiring both unrelenting discipline and prodigious virtuosity.

      Throughout most of her career, Graham maintained a position as the foremost figure in American modern dance. She instructed, or guided, generations of modern dance teachers both in the United States and abroad. She strongly influenced succeeding generations of modern dancers, ballet choreographers, stagers of musicals and operas, and creators of dance-dramas. From the “long woolens” of the 1920s, Graham moved to some of the most opulent productions to be found in modern dance, with an accent on sculptured pieces and brilliant costumes and properties. She was the recipient of many awards and honours, including the Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. In 1973 she published The Notebooks of Martha Graham.

Walter Terry

Additional Reading

Biographies include LeRoy Leatherman, Martha Graham (1966); Don McDonach, Martha Graham (1973); and Agnes de Mille, Martha: The Life and Work of Martha Graham (1991). Merle Armitage (ed.), Martha Graham (1937, reprinted 1978), contains articles, reviews, and pictures of Martha Graham's Dance Theatre. Barbara Morgan, Martha Graham: Sixteen Dances in Photographs, rev. ed. (1980), is also informative. Reminiscences by Graham's dancers and students can be found in Marian Horosko (compiler), Martha Graham: The Evolution of Her Dance Theory and Training, 1926–1991 (1991), by 26 of her students, with descriptions of dance movements; and Robert Tracy, Goddess: Martha Graham's Dancers Remember (1997).

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