Eyck, Jan van

born before 1395, Maaseik, Bishopric of Liège, Holy Roman Empire

died , before July 9, 1441, Bruges

Flemish painter.

He is recorded in 1422 as a master painter working for John of Bavaria, count of Holland, and later was employed by Philip III the Good, duke of Burgundy. Securely attributed paintings survive only from the last decade of his career; 10 are signed and dated, an unusually large number for the period. He produced portraits and religious subjects that are unmatched for their technical brilliance, their intellectual complexity, and the richness of their symbolism; he perfected the newly developed technique of oil painting. His masterpiece is the Adoration of the Lamb (1432), known as the Ghent Altarpiece, which he painted with his brother Hubert (с 1370–1426). He is commonly regarded as the greatest northern European artist of the 15th century. His works were widely copied and avidly collected.

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▪ Flemish painter

born before 1395, Maaseik, Bishopric of Liège, Holy Roman Empire [now in Belgium]

died before July 9, 1441, Bruges

 Flemish painter who perfected the newly developed technique of oil painting. His naturalistic panel paintings, mostly portraits and religious subjects, made extensive use of disguised religious symbols. His masterpiece is the altarpiece in the cathedral at Ghent, the Adoration of the Lamb (also called Ghent Altarpiece, 1432). Hubert van Eyck is thought by some to have been Jan's brother.

      Jan van Eyck must have been born before 1395, for in October 1422 he is recorded as the varlet de chambre et peintre (“honorary equerry and painter”) of John of Bavaria, count of Holland. He continued to work in the palace of The Hague until the count's death in 1425 and then settled briefly in Bruges before he was summoned, that summer, to Lille to serve Philip the Good (Philip III), duke of Burgundy, the most powerful ruler and foremost patron of the arts in Flanders (Flemish art). Jan remained in the duke's employ until his death. On behalf of his sponsor he undertook a number of secret missions during the next decade, of which the most notable were two journeys to the Iberian Peninsula, the first in 1427 to try to contract a marriage for Philip with Isabella of Spain and a more successful trip in 1428–29 to seek the hand of Isabella of Portugal. As a confidant of Philip, Jan may have participated directly in these marriage negotiations, but he also was charged to present the duke with a portrait of the intended.

      In 1431 Jan purchased a house in Bruges and, about the same time, married a woman named Margaret, about whom little more is known than that she was born in 1406 and was to bear him at least two children. Residing in Bruges, Jan continued to paint, and in 1436 he again made a secret voyage for Philip. After his death in 1441 he was buried in the Church of Saint-Donatian, in Bruges.

      Securely attributed paintings survive only from the last decade of Jan's career; therefore, his artistic origins and early development must be deduced from his mature work. Traditionally, Jan has been acclaimed the founder of Flemish painting, and scholars have sought his artistic roots in the last great phase of medieval manuscript illumination. It is clear that the naturalism and elegant composition of Jan's later painting owe much to such early 15th-century illuminators as the anonymous Boucicaut Master and Pol, Herman, and Jehanequin de Limburg (the “Limburg Brothers”), who worked for the Burgundian dukes. A document of 1439 reports that Jan van Eyck paid an illuminator for preparing a book for the duke; but central to the discussion of his ties to manuscript illustration has been the attribution to Jan of several miniatures, identified as Hand G, in a problematic prayer book known as the Turin-Milan Hours. So long as these “Eyckian” miniatures were dated in the 1420s or even earlier, Jan's authorship seemed indubitable; but recent investigations strongly indicate that these miniatures were painted at least 20 years later and, hence, that they are by an imitator. With the elimination of the Turin-Milan Hours from Jan van Eyck's early oeuvre, his connections with International Gothic style illumination appear to have been less direct than had been thought.

      Certainly as important for Jan's artistic formation were the panel paintings of Robert Campin (Campin, Robert) (c. 1378–1444), a Tournai painter whose important role in the history of Flemish art has only recently been reestablished. Jan must have met Campin at least once, when he was feted by the Tournai painter's guild in 1427, and from Campin's art he seems to have learned the bold realism, the method of disguised symbolism, and perhaps the luminous oil technique that became so characteristic of his own style. In contrast to Campin, who was a Tournai burgher, Jan was a learned master at work in a busy court, and he signed his paintings, the first Flemish artist to do so. The majority of Jan's panels present the proud inscription “IOHANNES DE EYCK,” and several bear his aristocratic motto, “Als ich chan” (“As best I can”). It is small wonder that Campin's reputation faded and his influence on Jan was forgotten, and it is of little surprise that many of Campin's achievements were credited to the younger master.

      Despite Jan van Eyck's having signed 9 paintings and dated 10, the establishment of his oeuvre and the reconstruction of its chronology present problems. The major difficulty is that Jan's masterpiece, the Adoration of the Lamb altarpiece, has a wholly questionable inscription that introduces Hubert van Eyck as its principal master. This has caused art historians to turn to less ambitious but more secure works to plot Jan's development, including, most notably: the Portrait of a Young Man (Leal Souvenir) of 1432, The Marriage of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami (?) of 1434, the Madonna with Canon van der Paele of 1434–36, the triptych Madonna and Child with Saints of 1437, and the panels of St. Barbara and the Madonna at the Fountain, dated, respectively, 1437 and 1439. Although they fall within a brief span of seven years, these paintings present a consistent development in which Jan moved from the heavy, sculptural realism associated with Robert Campin to a more delicate, rather precious, pictorial style.

      On stylistic grounds there seems little difficulty in placing the Ghent Altarpiece at the head of this development as indicated by the date 1432 in the inscription, but the question of Hubert's participation in this great work has yet to be resolved. The inscription itself is definite about this point: “The painter Hubert van Eyck, greater than whom no one was found, began [this work]; and Jan, his brother, second in art [carried] through the task . . . ” On the basis of this claim, art historians have attempted to distinguish Hubert's contribution to the Ghent Altarpiece and have even assigned to him certain of the more archaic “Eyckian” paintings, including The Annunciation and The Three Marys at the Tomb. A problem arises, however, because the inscription itself is a 16th-century transcription, and earlier references make no mention of Hubert. Albrecht Dürer (Dürer, Albrecht), for instance, praised only Jan van Eyck during his visit to Ghent in 1521; and as late as 1562 the Flemish historian Marcus van Vaernewyck referred to Jan alone as the creator of the altarpiece. Furthermore, a recent philological study casts serious doubt on the dependability of the inscription. Thus, Hubert's participation is highly suspect, and any knowledge of his art must await new discoveries.

      On the other hand, there is little doubt that Hubert did exist. A “meester Hubrechte de scildere” (Master Hubert, the painter) is mentioned three times in the City Archives of Ghent, and a transcription of his epitaph reports that he died on September 18, 1426. Whether this Hubert van Eyck was related to Jan and why in the 16th century he was credited with the major share of the Ghent Altarpiece are questions that remain unanswered.

      The confusion concerning his relationship to Hubert, the doubt about his activities as an illuminator, and the reemergence of Robert Campin as a preeminent master do not diminish the achievement and significance of Jan van Eyck. He may not have invented painting with oils as early writers asserted, but he perfected the technique to mirror the textures, light, and spatial effects of nature. The realism of his paintings—admired as early as 1449 by the Italian humanist Cyriacus D'Ancona, who observed that the works seemed to have been produced “not by the artifice of human hands but by all-bearing nature herself”—has never been surpassed. For Jan, as for Campin, naturalism was not merely a technical tour de force, however. For him, nature embodied God, and so he filled his paintings with religious symbols disguised as everyday objects. Even the light that so naturally illuminates Jan van Eyck's landscapes and interiors is a metaphor of the Divine.

      Because of the refinement of his technique and the abstruseness of his symbolic programs, the successors of Jan van Eyck borrowed only selectively from his art. Campin's foremost student, Rogier van der Weyden (Weyden, Rogier van der), tempered his master's homey realism with Eyckian grace and delicacy; in fact, at the end of his career, Campin himself succumbed somewhat to Jan's courtly style. Even Petrus Christus (Christus, Petrus), who may have been apprenticed in Jan's atelier and who finished the Virgin and Child, with Saints and Donor after Jan's death, quickly abandoned the intricacies of Jan's style under the influence of Rogier. During the last third of the century, the Netherlandish painters Hugo van der Goes and Justus van Gent revived the Eyckian heritage, but, when such early 16th-century Flemish masters as Quentin Massys (Massys, Quentin) and Jan Gossart (Gossart, Jan) turned to Jan's work, they produced pious copies that had little impact on their original creations. In Germany and France the influence of Jan van Eyck was overshadowed by the more accessible styles of Campin and Rogier, and only in the Iberian Peninsula—which Jan had visited twice—did his art dominate. In Italy his greatness was recognized by Cyriacus and by the humanist Bartolomeo Facio, who lists Jan—together with Rogier and the Italian artists Il Pisanello (Pisanello, Il) and Gentile da Fabriano (Fabriano)—as one of the leading painters of the period. But Renaissance artists, as painters elsewhere, found him easier to admire than to imitate.

      Interest in his painting and acknowledgment of his prodigious technical accomplishment have remained high. Jan's works have been copied frequently and have been avidly collected. He is referred to in the Treaty of Versailles, which specifies the return of the Ghent Altarpiece to Belgium before peace with Germany could be concluded after the end of World War I.

Herbert Leon Kessler

Additional Reading

Three monographs present basic surveys of the careers and art of the van Eyck brothers: the early study by W.H. James Weale, Hubert and John Van Eyck: Their Life and Work (1908), indispensable for its documentary material; Ludwig von Baldass, Jan van Eyck (1952); and L.J. Bol, Jan van Eyck (1965). A catalogue raisonné, which includes all attributed works and copies, is available in vol. 1 of Max J. Friedländer, Early Netherlandish Painting (1967). The fundamental study of the entire period, Erwin Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting: Its Origins and Character, 2 vol. (1953, reprinted 1971), considers Jan and Hubert van Eyck in great detail. Although Panofsky's attributions and chronology must be modified, his iconographic interpretations remain essential to an understanding of Eyckian painting.

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