Columbia River

River, southwestern Canada and northwestern U.S. Rising in the Canadian Rockies, it flows through Washington state, entering the Pacific Ocean at Astoria, Ore.

; it has a total length of 1,240 mi (2,000 km). It was a major transportation artery in the Pacific Northwest until the coming of the railroads. Development of the river began in the 1930s with construction of the Grand Coulee and Bonneville dams, and within 50 years the entire river within the U.S. had been converted into a series of "stair steps" by a total of 11 dams. Its many hydroelectric power plants are basic to the power-generating network of the Pacific Northwest.

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▪ river, North America

Introduction

 largest river flowing into the Pacific Ocean from North America. It is exceeded in discharge on the continent only by the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, and Mackenzie rivers. The Columbia is one of the world's greatest sources of hydroelectric power and, with its tributaries, represents a third of the potential hydropower of the United States. In addition, its mouth provides the first deepwater harbour north of San Francisco. Two-fifths of the river's course, some 500 miles (800 km) of its 1,240-mile (2,000-km) length, lies in Canada, between its headwaters in British Columbia and the U.S. border.

Physical features

Physiography and hydrology

      The Columbia drains some 258,000 square miles (668,000 square km), of which about 85 percent is in the northwestern United States. Major tributaries are the Kootenay (Kootenay River), Snake (Snake River), Pend Oreille, Spokane (Spokane River), Okanogan, Yakima (Yakima River), Cowlitz, and Willamette (Willamette River) rivers. High flows occur in late spring and early summer, when snow melts in the mountainous watershed. Low flows occur in autumn and winter, causing water shortages at the river's hydroelectric plants.

      The Columbia flows from its source in Columbia Lake, at an elevation of 2,700 feet (820 metres), in British Columbia near the crest of the Rocky Mountains, to the Pacific Ocean at Astoria, Oregon. For the first 190 miles (305 km), its course is northwesterly; it then flows to the south for 270 miles (435 km) to the border of Canada and the United States (elevation 1,290 feet [390 metres]), where it enters northeastern Washington. It traverses east-central Washington in a sweeping curve known as the Big Bend, its prehistoric course having been disarranged first by lava flows and later by ice sheets. The ice sheets were instrumental in creating the Channelled Scablands, a series of coulees (steep-walled ravines) trending northeast-southwest in the northern part of the Columbia Plateau; Grand Coulee is the largest of these. The scablands were formed as immense torrents of water, released intermittently from ice-dammed lakes upstream, swept down-valley. Shortly below the confluence with the Snake River, its largest tributary, the Columbia turns west and continues 300 miles (480 km) to the ocean as the boundary between Oregon and Washington; in this last stretch the river has carved the spectacular Columbia Gorge through the Cascades Range.

      Tides flow upriver for 140 miles (225 km). Portland, Oregon (about 110 miles [180 km] from the mouth), and Vancouver, Washington (100 miles [160 km]), are the upper limit of oceangoing navigation, aided by a dredged channel; through the use of a series of locks, barge traffic is made possible to Lewiston, Idaho, more than 460 miles (740 km) inland from the river's mouth at the junction of the Clearwater and Snake rivers.

Climate

      The Columbia River basin's climate, strongly affected by orographic influences, is partly continental and partly marine. The Rocky Mountains to the east block out most of the severe winter storms of the interior of the continent, and the Cascade Range to the west shields the basin from moist Pacific Ocean air. Summers are typically hot and dry with only occasional thundershowers; winters are moderately cold and dry with occasional snow or even rain. Temperature and precipitation vary greatly with elevation, but in the central basin January average daily temperatures are between about 25° and 30° F (−4° and −1° C), and July averages are mostly between 70° and 75° F (21° and 24° C). Average annual precipitation ranges from less than 8 inches (200 mm) at the lowest elevations to about 15 inches (380 mm) near the mountain foothills and 40 inches (1,000 mm) or more in the mountains. West of the Cascades the climate is marine-influenced, with long, rainy winters and cool, dry summers.

Plant and animal life

      Native vegetation at lower elevations of the interior basin is mostly of the shrub-steppe variety, dominated by sagebrush and bunchgrasses. With increasing elevation, shrub-steppe gives way to ponderosa pine and then to fir, larch, and other pines. More than half of the original shrub-steppe vegetation has been eliminated by grazing and farming. Cheatgrass has become a troublesome invader. Greasewood and alkali salt grass dominate on poorly drained saline soils, while willow and black cottonwood dominate along watercourses. West of the Cascades, forests of Douglas fir with hemlock and western red cedar prevail in upland areas.

      Animal life was abundant and varied prior to white settlement. Notable were the great runs of salmon and steelhead trout; populations of beaver, deer, elk, bear, and bighorn sheep; flocks of waterfowl and upland birds, including eagles, ospreys, hawks, and falcons; and numbers of western rattlesnakes. The ability of the region to sustain large populations of wildlife has been drastically reduced, especially for salmon and beaver. The bald eagle and peregrine falcon have been listed as threatened and endangered, respectively, and the latter designation has been considered for several salmon runs.

The economy

      Many controversies have marked the economic development of the Columbia River. Notable among these have been the division of responsibility between public and private agencies, the effect on the fish life (particularly salmon) and loss of traditional Indian fishing sites, proposals for a Columbia Valley Authority, the proper rate of interest to be charged on the federal government's investment in hydroelectric power development, and arrangements for sharing power-generating revenues and costs with Canada for upstream storage reservoirs in British Columbia. Nonetheless, exploiting the river's hydroelectric and irrigation potentials has been instrumental in developing the region's economy.

      This multipurpose development of the Columbia's main stem began in the 1930s with construction of Grand Coulee (Grand Coulee Dam) and Bonneville dams by the federal government. Nearly all of the river's 1,290-foot (390-metre) fall within the United States has been converted into a series of “stair steps” by 11 dams on the main river, augmented by dams on tributaries and three upstream storage reservoirs in British Columbia constructed in accordance with a treaty between the United States and Canada. The four lower dams on the Columbia, plus four more on the lower Snake, provide large navigation locks; and all are equipped with fish-passage facilities, the original assumption being that these fish ladders would make possible the continued annual upstream run of the salmon.

      Grand Coulee Dam, the largest and most complex of the Columbia's dams, augments the low winter flows when power demand is greatest. A powerhouse completed in the 1970s makes use of the Canadian storage capacity, and the dam has remained one of the world's largest hydroelectric power plants. Water also is pumped from Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake, the reservoir behind Grand Coulee Dam, for the Columbia Basin Irrigation Project, the largest single project of its kind in the Northwest and the first large-scale use of the Columbia River itself for irrigation. The first water delivery was made in 1952 to the designated lands, which previously had been covered by sagebrush and other desert vegetation. Some three-fifths of the project's planned area is now being irrigated. A major share of the cost of this expensive project is being paid by the sale of the power generated at Grand Coulee Dam.

      All power plants along the system are connected by high-voltage, federally owned transmission lines, the backbone of a power network in which all utilities of the Pacific Northwest participate. This system is linked with the power grid in the state of California and with the American Southwest; surplus Columbia River power is sold to the Southwest during the summer (and Southwestern steam-generated power to the Northwest during the winter).

      The treaty with Canada (1961), supplemented by a further pact in 1964, called for the United States to pay British Columbia sums representing that province's share of power- and flood-control benefits, for British Columbia to build three large dams (two of them on the Columbia), and for the United States to build a fourth dam on the Kootenay in Montana.

History

      Numerous Native American peoples inhabited the Columbia River basin for several thousand years. Spanish explorers sailing up the Pacific coast about 1775 probably were the first Europeans to sight the river's mouth. The Boston trader Robert Gray (Gray, Robert) sailed up the Columbia in 1792 and named it for his ship. The American Lewis and Clark Expedition wintered at its mouth in 1805 and 1806, and an English geographer, David Thompson (Thompson, David), explored most of the river for the North West Company, reaching the mouth in 1811—only to find that Fort Astoria was already being built by the Americans. The upper basin was explored for the North West Company between 1807 and 1811. Other early posts included Fort Vancouver (1825), of the Hudson's Bay Company, and Fort Walla Walla (1818), of the North West Company (after 1821 it merged with the Hudson's Bay Company).

      Irrigation apparently was practiced at Fort Walla Walla (near present-day Wallula, Washington) by the early 1830s and at the mission established in 1836 by Dr. Marcus Whitman at nearby Waiilatpu, and it was later extended to many tributary valleys east of the Cascade Range. The main stem of the Columbia was too deeply entrenched for early irrigation, but, as the only sea-level route to the interior, it served as the major transportation artery until the coming of the railroad. The canoes and barges of the fur traders and early immigrants had given way to river steamers by the 1850s. The many rapids—21 to the mouth of the Snake River—made navigation difficult; the worst point was circumvented by the first railroad in Washington, a 1.5-mile (2.5-km), wooden-railed, mule-drawn tram that later was replaced by a 6-mile (10-km) rail line with steam locomotives. The heavy agricultural and mining trade of the Columbia River basin was dominated by Portland through a monopolistic combination of river steamers and connecting stages. A railroad was completed from Portland to Walla Walla, Washington, in 1882 and from St. Paul, Minnesota, to Portland and thence to Tacoma, Washington, on Puget Sound the following year. In 1887 the Northern Pacific Railway reached Tacoma directly over the Cascade Range, and the monopoly of the Columbia River route was ended.

      The abundance of salmon was noted by the early explorers. The first cannery on the Columbia opened in 1866, and by 1881 some 30 Columbia River canneries were supplying world markets, especially Great Britain, with salmon caught in nets, traps, and wheels. From a record of 21,500 tons in 1883, the annual Columbia River salmon catch has declined to about 10 percent of that quantity. Although such organizations as the Northwest Regional Power Council and the Bonneville Power Administration have made considerable effort to increase the size of the river's annual salmon run, much doubt remains as to whether fish populations can ever be restored to earlier levels or even maintained at their current size. Serious impediments have included the barriers to upstream migration presented by the dams and power-generating equipment, the loss of spawning grounds through inundation, the displacement of naturally spawned fish by those raised in hatcheries, the supersaturation of the water by nitrogen trapped as floodwaters plunge over spillways, and the loss of the river's natural current to guide spawning fish.

Marion E. Marts

Additional Reading

Studies of the physical environment of the Columbia River include Bates McKee, Cascadia: The Geologic Evolution of the Pacific Northwest (1972), a classic, well-illustrated survey; Jerry F. Franklin and C.T. Dyrness, Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington, new ed. (1988), which examines the complex vegetation patterns of the region; and John A. Alwin, Between the Mountains: A Portrait of Eastern Washington (1984), a descriptive work. George Sundborg, Hail Columbia: The Thirty-Year Struggle for Grand Coulee Dam (1954), offers a fascinating account of the long controversy that led to the decision to construct the dam. Anthony Netboy, Salmon of the Pacific Northwest (1958), was the first work to predict the consequences of dams on the salmon population. Gene Tollefson, BPA and the Struggle for Power at Cost (1987), provides a more recent description of developments in the region's economy that are directly influenced by the river. William Dietrich, Northwest Passage: The Great Columbia River (1995), chronicles the history of various environmental and social issues connected with the river. A wealth of information is provided in the reports of special agencies, such as Northwest Power Planning Council (U.S.), Columbia River Basin Fish and Wildlife Program (1982), with later irregular updates. Dorothy O. Johansen and Charles M. Gates, Empire of the Columbia: A History of the Pacific Northwest, 2nd ed. (1967), is a standard history of the area, with a comprehensive bibliography. D.W. Meinig, The Great Columbia Plain: A Historical Geography, 1805–1910 (1968), is the classic work on the settlement history of eastern Washington. Two other readable accounts of history and folklore are Murray C. Morgan, The Columbia: Powerhouse of the West (1949); and Stewart H. Holbrook, The Columbia (1956, reprinted 1974).Marion E. Marts

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