Vermont

/veuhr mont"/, n.

a state of the NE United States: a part of New England. 511,456; 9609 sq. mi. (24,885 sq. km). Cap.: Montpelier. Abbr.: VT (for use with zip code), Vt.

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State (pop., 2000: 608,827), northeastern U.S. One of the New England states, it covers 9,614 sq mi (24,900 sq km); its capital is Montpelier.

On the north, Vermont borders Quebec, Can., on the south, Massachusetts, and on the west, New York. From the Canadian to the Massachusetts border, the Connecticut River separates Vermont from New Hampshire on the east. The Green Mountains extend through the centre of Vermont. The highest point is Mount Mansfield, at 4,393 ft (1,339 m). Most of the rivers drain into Lake Champlain. Settled originally by Abenaki Indians, the region was explored by Samuel de Champlain, who in 1609 discovered the lake that now bears his name. The French established the first permanent European settlement in 1666 on Isle La Motte. Both the Dutch and the British established settlements in the 18th century, but the area fell exclusively to the British in 1763. Disputes arose between New York and New Hampshire concerning jurisdiction of the area; New Hampshire had awarded grants to settlers. In 1770 Ethan Allen organized the Green Mountain Boys to repel encroachers from western New York. In 1775, at the start of the American Revolution, Allen and his group, fighting for the colonies, captured Fort Ticonderoga from the British. Vermonters created an independent republic in 1777, and in 1791 it became the 14th U.S. state. In 1864, during the American Civil War, it was the site of the only action north of Pennsylvania when a band of Confederates raided St. Albans from Canada. Dairying and the mining of granite and marble contribute to the economy. In the 1930s the first ski runs were built, and by the 1960s a winter tourist industry had developed.

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▪ state, United States

Introduction

Vermont, flag of    constituent state of the United States of America (United States). One of the six New England states lying in the northeastern corner of the country, it was admitted to the union on March 4, 1791, as the 14th state. It is sparsely populated, and its capital, Montpelier, is one of the least-populous U.S. state capitals. Vermont is bordered to the north by Quebec, Can., to the east by New Hampshire, to the south by Massachusetts, and to the west by New York. From the Canadian to the Massachusetts border, the Connecticut River separates Vermont from New Hampshire. The river, from the mean low-water line on the western bank, is entirely within New Hampshire's borders.

      In many ways Vermont is a vigorous survivor of an earlier, simpler time in the United States. Millions of people visit the state each year, and many thousands of out-of-state residents maintain second homes in Vermont. These people primarily seek the beauty and tranquility of Vermont's mountains and narrow valleys and the sense of the country's past that pervades the entire state. The steeples of white wooden churches rising above mountain-bound small towns with trim village greens, the herds of dairy cattle on sloping mountain pastures, and the red-gold leaves of tree-lined autumnal lanes are aspects of scenic Vermont that, in painting and photography, have become symbols of the rural United States.

      Many people left their birthplaces in Vermont to pursue opportunities in the opening West or in urban centres of the Northeast. In turn, many creative personalities have sought the spiritual refuge offered by the state. Vermont has never stood in the mainstream of the country's history, but its people and land have poured into their country a strength and a sense of continuity that joins the achievements of the nation's past with the purposes of its present. Area 9,615 square miles (24,903 square km). Pop. (2000) 608,827; (2005 est.) 623,050.

Land

  The land of Vermont does not have great variety, but in place of this it substitutes an intensity and pervasiveness of those features it does possess.

Relief

  The Green Mountains that cover most of the state are part of the northern Appalachian Mountains, which run southeastward from Canada into north-central Alabama. They provide Vermont with a north-south backbone that ranges from approximately 20 to 35 miles (30 to 55 km) in width. Thirty-one mountains in the state rise above 3,500 feet (1,100 metres), and most of this tilted landscape is rocky with thin topsoil. Only about 15 percent of the state's terrain, mostly in the Champlain valley, is level land with fertile soil and high productive capability. Vermont's average elevation is about 1,000 feet (300 metres). Mount Mansfield (Mansfield, Mount), at 4,393 feet (1,339 metres), is its highest point; and Lake Champlain (Champlain, Lake), at 95 feet (29 metres), is its lowest. On the Vermont-Massachusetts border, the northern end of the Hoosac Range enters the state, and the Taconic Range rises along the southwestern side. North of the Taconic Range are the Red Sandrock Hills, which extend along Lake Champlain to St. Albans (Saint Albans).

Drainage

 Vermont's mountain ranges are broken by the valleys of only a few rivers, such as the Winooski (Winooski River), Lamoille, and Missisquoi, all flowing westward into Lake Champlain (Champlain, Lake). Part of the Missisquoi turns north to flow through Canada before returning to Vermont. Lake Champlain's waters empty northward into Canada's Richelieu River and flow 80 miles (130 km) into the St. Lawrence (Saint Lawrence River and Seaway). The longest river entirely within the state is the Lamoille (85 miles [135 km]), followed by Otter Creek (75 miles [120 km]), which rises in southwestern Vermont and flows northward into Lake Champlain. Several small streams, the largest of which is the White River, flow from the central highlands into the Connecticut River. The western portion of Lake Champlain is in New York, and three-fourths of the area of Lake Memphremagog (Memphremagog, Lake)—the second largest lake associated with Vermont—lies in Canada. The largest of the 400 natural lakes entirely in Vermont is Lake Bomoseen, west of Rutland.

Climate

 Snowfall in Vermont usually averages between 70 and 80 inches (1,800 and 2,000 mm) in the valleys and up to 110 inches (2,800 mm) in the mountains. Total annual precipitation varies from 34 inches (870 mm) in the eastern and western sections to more than 40 inches (1,025 mm) in the mountains. Winter temperatures can drop to −34 °F (−37 °C) and lower, and summer temperatures rarely rise above 90 °F (32 °C). Pleasant summer days often turn cool after nightfall. The annual growing season is only about 120 days—somewhat longer in the low-lying Champlain valley—because frost usually comes in September and may strike as late as the beginning of June. The short growing season and rocky soil make dairying the dominant form of commercial farming.

Plant and animal life

      At one time many of Vermont's hilltops were cleared for pastures and open fields. As farmers abandoned the hillsides, the open spaces quickly refilled with trees. Pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock are common; maple and birch are among the deciduous species. The state tree is the sugar maple, which reflects Vermont's prominence in maple sugar and syrup production. The wooded areas, with their small brooks and springs, produce a great variety of ferns and wildflowers; in the spring and summer they are filled with the many species of birds common to the Northeast. Environmental factors such as acid rain have affected trees in the higher elevations. Concerns about excessive logging have led to state restrictions on clear-cutting.

      Vermont has a huge deer population, and deer hunting is an autumn ritual. Bears are often seen, but wild members of the cat family are rare. There is a growing moose population and (since 1993) an annual moose-hunting season. Small animals abound in Vermont. Fishing in the lakes and streams, including ice fishing in winter, is popular.

People

Population composition

      The vast majority of the state's population is of European ancestry (white); African Americans, Native Americans, and other groups each make up only a tiny proportion of the population. People of French or French Canadian descent constitute about one-third of the total, and those of English and Irish descent comprise roughly one-fourth and one-fifth, respectively. There is a broad diversity of ancestry among the remaining population.

      The arrival of various groups can often be traced to phases of Vermont's economic development. In 1848, when railroads were first built in Vermont, a large number of Irish immigrants were hired as labourers. Many of their descendants live today in Rutland, Burlington, St. Albans, and other large towns. During the early 1900s French Canadians from Quebec province settled in the state, many of them in the woolen-mill town of Winooski and others on farms along the northern border. Today a small but significant number of Vermont residents still speak French as their first language. Immigrants from northern Italy carried with them centuries of quarrying and stone-carving tradition to Barre and other granite-producing areas, giving Barre a character quite different from what visitors might expect to find in a Vermont city. Other quarry workers from northern Spain settled in the Barre-Montpelier area. Many Welshmen worked in the slate mines of western Vermont because they were familiar with this type of mining in their native land. Immigrants from Poland sought work in Brattleboro, Springfield, and other manufacturing towns. The slight need for industrial labour and the rural character of the state attracted few African Americans from the South.

      Because of the historical dominance of Vermonters (Vermont) who were descended from early Americans of Protestant background and English heritage, the people of the state are almost prototypical Yankees (Yankee). There is scarcely a town in Vermont that does not have a white frame church on its village green or main street. Virtually every Protestant denomination is represented in Vermont, with a heavy concentration of Presbyterians in the Caledonia county area of northeastern Vermont. The name Caledonia, the Roman designation for northern Britain, was brought by the Scottish immigrants who first settled the region in the 1770s. The Roman Catholic diocese of Burlington includes all of Vermont, and Roman Catholics make up about one-third of Vermont's total population.

Settlement patterns

 Most Vermonters live in valley cities and towns. Burlington, in the Champlain valley, is Vermont's largest community, followed by Essex, near Burlington; Rutland, in the Otter valley; Colchester, just north of Burlington; and South Burlington. The Burlington–South Burlington metropolitan area contains about one-third of the state's population. The Green Mountains were long a barrier between eastern and western Vermont, and judgeships and political candidates often were chosen to balance an eastern and western sectionalism. Although regional division is now a minor factor, some observers detect it emerging between southern and northern Vermont, presumably a reflection of the influx of newcomers and resort developments in the south. Others sense a dichotomy involving small towns and large towns, which revolves around such public issues as state constitutional reforms, welfare aid, and educational innovations. Three isolated northeastern counties have been known since 1949 as the “Northeast Kingdom,” a name bestowed by former governor and U.S. senator George Aiken in recognition of the area's natural beauty. Pragmatically, however, the major sense of regionalism is derived from large towns, which form a centre for surrounding rural areas.

Demographic trends

      With the end of the American Revolution and Vermont's acceptance into the union, the area experienced a tremendous population surge, primarily fueled by settlers from southern New England. From 1790 to 1810 Vermont's population grew by 150 percent, increasing by nearly 133,000 in 20 years.

      The renewed threat of invasion during the War of 1812 (1812, War of), several years of harsh weather marked by the notable year of 1816—known as “Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death” and also called the “Year Without a Summer”—and the eventual opening of more fertile western lands slowed Vermont's population growth substantially. Between 1810 and 1950 Vermont's population increased by only some 160,000. Much of this population stagnation was attributed to the emigration of Vermonters who sought greater economic opportunities elsewhere. This trend continued into the mid-20th century.

      The building of the Interstate Highway System during the 1950s and '60s, the growth of tourism and recreation in Vermont, which also spurred the construction of second homes there, and greater local economic opportunities, highlighted by the construction of an International Business Machines (IBM) plant, ended the century-long population stagnation. From 1960 to 2000 Vermont's population grew by nearly 220,000.

      While emigration of young Vermonters has slowed, the influx of newcomers is outstripping the growth of the native-born population. In 1960 more than three-fourths of Vermonters were native-born; by 2000 this proportion had dropped to about three-fifths. This decrease, coupled with perceived differences in the social expectations of nonnatives over the range and costs of government services, has led to some tension between native Vermonters and newer arrivals.

      Growth has been uneven. Chittenden county, which contains the city of Burlington, is secure in its position as Vermont's population centre. Population increases have contributed to the expansion of suburbs outside traditional town centres, which has been accompanied by the loss of farmland and open space and, in ski-area towns, development on mountaintops and at higher elevations.

      Such demographic changes have had wide impacts on Vermont. Politically, Chittenden county controls one-fourth of the seats in the General Assembly (the lower house of Vermont's legislature), weakening the voice of the more rural counties.

      Development around ski areas raised environmental concerns and led to increasing environmental legislation beginning with the passage of regional planning in 1970. Loss of farmland to development, including the advent of large retail stores, as well as the changing face of the Vermont landscape, has raised concerns about urban sprawl and long-term effects on downtown economies, tourism, and agriculture. In 1993 the National Trust for Historic Preservation listed Vermont's traditional agricultural and town centre landscape as endangered by urban sprawl, the first time the trust had listed an entire state as being at risk. In 2004 the trust named the state one of its 11 most endangered places. How to manage growth to preserve those attributes that make Vermont unique while encouraging economic development has become a key public policy issue.

Economy

      Vermont's economy relies heavily on the service sector; its collective activities long have been the most important in terms of overall value and employment. Vermont has a low unemployment rate as compared with other states, although pockets of high employment still exist. Wages in the state are somewhat lower than the national average.

Agriculture

 The nature of farming has changed in Vermont. Although it has been surpassed by manufacturing and tourism as an economic force, farming still remains important. The number of farms declined by about one-third between 1950 and 2000, and employment in farming and its related industries has dropped to only a tiny fraction of the state's workforce. Less than half of the farms are dairy farms, the traditional mainstay of Vermont agriculture, but more than three-fourths of the state's farm income comes from dairy products.

      A move toward large-scale farms—encompassing most agricultural sectors from dairying to egg production—has raised some concerns about their effects on the environment and the decline of the family farm. Vermont is first in milk production in New England and leads the United States in the production of maple syrup. Specialty and gourmet foods have also become an important niche in Vermont agriculture. Vermont farming, because it has shaped the state's landscape, also is important to tourism.

Manufacturing

 Vermont's hundreds of manufacturing plants reflect national industrial trends. The number of machine-tool plants in Springfield tends to expand and contract along with the national economy. The St. Albans area, in Franklin county, suffered from the decline of the railroad industry. Textile mills were once major employers in many cities, such as Winooski, but many of these have closed or moved to the South. Some computer industries have moved into Vermont. Other Vermont firms have become subsidiaries of national firms. The state's Agency of Commerce and Community Development searches constantly for new industry, while an industrial park authority offers guidelines for establishing manufacturing facilities.

      Many Vermont industries are small companies that provide specialized products. Wood and paper products are natural for a state so heavily timbered, and about one-third of Vermont's manufacturing plants make bowls, hockey sticks, furniture, and paper of different kinds. Printing is among the major industries.

Mining

      Extractive industries contribute significantly to Vermont's economy. Quarries in Barre are among the largest granite pits in the world, and marble from Proctor is used for constructing commercial and public buildings—such as the U.S. Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C., and the United Nations headquarters in New York City. Slate quarries operate along the Vermont–New York border.

Tourism

 Tourism is the second largest component of the state's economy. Vacation resorts, motels and hotels, and related services employ thousands of Vermonters to serve the many tourists who visit the state each year. Skiing facilities at Stowe, Dover, Sherburne, and the Mad River valley are among the many Vermont winter resorts that attract people from throughout the Northeast. During the summer, visitors hike mountain trails, search through antique shops, study exhibits in the many museums, attend musical and dramatic performances, or bicycle or drive through the state and take photographs. Thousands of “leaf-peeping” tourists fill Vermont's roads in autumn as they look at the dramatic changing colours of the trees. The Tourism and Marketing Division of the Agency of Commerce and Community Development is active in promoting tourism, and its Vermont Life magazine depicts the state's scenic resources.

Transportation

      Vermont has limited Amtrak passenger rail service. Airline service is limited in southern and central Vermont, but the airport at Burlington provides links to cities in the Northeast and Midwest. The major road arteries are north-south routes in the Connecticut River valley and the lowland valley south of Lake Champlain. Interstate highways link Vermont with Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Quebec province. Elsewhere, roads are often winding, narrow, and hilly, following the contours of the land. None of these factors is conducive to industrial expansion, and transportation remains a major problem.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

  On July 8, 1777, Vermont adopted a constitution that was the first in the United States to prohibit slavery and to eliminate property qualifications for voting or holding office. It was revised in 1786, and in 1793 the present constitution was adopted. Amendments may be considered only once every four years.

      The governor of Vermont is elected for a two-year term and may run for reelection. Members of the bicameral General Assembly also serve two-year terms; the House of Representatives has 150 members and the Senate 30. Vermont has only one member in the U.S. House of Representatives.

      The judicial system in Vermont is headed by the Supreme Court, which has five members. Below it are 10 Superior Court judges and 17 district judges, a family court, and an environmental court. These judges are appointed by the governor and confirmed by the state Senate to serve six-year terms. All other judges, including two assistant judges in each county, are elected by the people.

      Every year on the first Tuesday in March, voters throughout the state meet in their town halls (town meeting) or community buildings to debate the town budget, road maintenance, and other topics and to elect local officials for the coming year. Because most communities are small and the state is compact, Vermonters have fairly direct access to elected officials, as well as ample opportunities to voice their opinions publicly on dominant issues.

      Since 1963 the governorship has alternated between the Democratic (Democratic Party) and Republican (Republican Party) parties. Since the 1980s, control of the General Assembly has tended to be Democratic, with the balance of power within the House occasionally being controlled by the presence of a small but persistent number of Progressive Party and independent legislators. Two-fifths of the Vermont electorate considers itself independent, and ticket splitting is common.

Education

 Despite its limited tax base, Vermont is able to support its schools financially and administratively. Locally elected boards, encouraged by the state, govern all primary and secondary education. The state provides for much of the funding, for teacher training and certification, and for various special programs in such areas as vocational training, arts and crafts, and rehabilitation.

      In 1997 the Vermont Supreme Court declared that the state's reliance on local property taxes for school funding created inequities in educational opportunities among towns. The General Assembly responded that year with an equal educational opportunity act that relies, in part, on a statewide property tax. Educational funding has remained a hotly debated issue.

      The state system of higher education includes the University of Vermont (Vermont, University of) (chartered in 1791) in Burlington and a number of liberal arts, technical, and other colleges. In addition, there are several outstanding private colleges and a law school in South Royalton. The school of languages and the writers' workshop at Middlebury College (1800), in Middlebury, and the writers' workshop Bread Loaf, in Ripton, are internationally known. Bennington College (1925), primarily attended by women, is known for its fine arts programs and for the major figures in the arts who regularly serve on its faculty. Marlboro College (1946) is noted for its work in the performing arts and for its summer music festivals. Norwich University (1819), in Northfield, is the country's oldest private military college.

Health and welfare

      The state supports several innovative health care programs designed to deliver early preventive care for young Vermonters. The Vermont State Hospital is the only state-run psychiatric facility in Vermont and is largely restricted to people with major mental illnesses who are a danger to themselves or to others. The state's psychiatric care system emphasizes finding community alternatives to the state hospital.

      Vermont's correctional system includes several regional detention centres and facilities for juvenile offenders. In 1969 the state assumed full responsibility for administering welfare programs, some of which formerly had been supervised by an “overseer of the poor” in each town.

Cultural life

 Vermont's often low-key and rural character is complemented by strong involvement in artistic and cultural pursuits. Many artists and scholars have followed such famous literary figures as Sinclair Lewis (Lewis, Sinclair), Pearl Buck (Buck, Pearl), Robert Frost (Frost, Robert), and Robert Penn Warren (Warren, Robert Penn) in maintaining vacation homes in the state. Painters find inspiration in the landscape, and sculptors adapt old materials and forms from barns and antique shops to contemporary uses. Among the fine art venues in Vermont are the Robert Hull Fleming Museum at the University of Vermont, the Southern Vermont Art Center, in Manchester, the Springfield Historical Society and Miller Art Center, in Springfield, the Chaffee Center for the Visual Arts in Rutland, the T. W. Wood Gallery and Arts Center, in Montpelier, and the Middlebury College Museum of Art.

      Practitioners of various folk arts are numerous, and the state operates an arts-and-crafts service augmented by the Vermont Museum and Gallery Alliance. The Vermont Council on the Arts and the Vermont Historical Society often sponsor demonstrations by artists and craftspeople. Vermont has a rich heritage of folk music, and in warm weather numerous music and drama events are held throughout the state. Among the better-known are the annual Marlboro Music Festival and the Vermont Mozart Festival in Burlington, and the Craftsbury Chamber Players attract large audiences to Burlington and Hardwick. Summer theatre is popular in Stowe, Winooski, Weston, Dorset, and elsewhere in the state. The Vermont Symphony Orchestra was the first in the United States to receive a legislative appropriation. The University of Vermont sponsors cultural events in Burlington and other communities, and lectures, films, and concerts are offered frequently by Vermont's other colleges and universities.

      Vermont's long history of newspaper publishing began with the publication of the Vermont Gazette in Bennington in the 1780s. Today many towns and cities across the state publish daily newspapers; among the top dailies are the Burlington Free Press, Rutland Herald, St. Johnsbury Caledonian-Record, Brattleboro Reformer, and Barre-Montpelier Times-Argus.

      Vermont is proud of the way it preserves its heritage. The Shelburne Museum is called “The Museum of the American Spirit” because its historic buildings on 45 acres (18 hectares) contain a wealth of early artifacts. The Bennington Museum contains the oldest preserved Stars and Stripes carried in battle, a collection of the primitive-style paintings of Grandma Moses (Moses, Grandma), and specimens produced by the large Bennington pottery industry. In Montpelier the Vermont Historical Society has created a museum inside a reconstructed Victorian landmark on the statehouse green. The Fairbanks Museum and Planetarium in St. Johnsbury (Saint Johnsbury) is renowned for its natural history displays. The Billings Farm and Museum in Woodstock and the Ethan Allen Homestead in Burlington are popular attractions. Vermont has nearly 150 local historical societies and statewide groups, such as the Vermont Archaeological Society.

 Vermont has more than 100 covered bridges, most of which were constructed before 1912 and have been protected by state law. The Vermont Division for Historic Preservation maintains almost 70 historic sites, including the Bennington Battle Monument, the Old Constitution House at Windsor, and the birthplace and family homestead of Pres. Calvin Coolidge (Coolidge, Calvin) at Plymouth. The State House in Montpelier is considered the state's most important historic site. Large areas of the Green Mountains are designated as national or state forests, and Vermont maintains dozens of state parks.

History (Vermont)

Exploration and settlement

 Paleo-Indians began to move into northern New England about 9000 BC, at the end of the last ice age. Vermont sites from the late Archaic culture period (c. 4000 BC) reveal highly specialized slate tools and evidence of wide-ranging exchange networks, including copper tools from the upper Great Lakes and shells from the Gulf of Mexico. By AD 1050, at the beginning of the Late Woodland period, there were extensive settlements in Vermont's river valleys.

      By 1600, western groups of the Algonquian-speaking (Algonquian languages) Abenaki Confederacy occupied the area from Lake Champlain (Champlain, Lake) on the west to the White Mountains of New Hampshire on the east and from southern Quebec to the Vermont-Massachusetts border. Western Abenaki groups included the Sokoki and Cowasuck along the Connecticut River and the Missisquoi along Lake Champlain. Non-Abenaki, such as the Mohican and Mohawk, also lived in the region. In general, Lake Champlain marked the boundary between the Abenaki and tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy. According to some estimates, there were about 10,000 western Abenaki when European exploration of the region began. Decimated by disease and dislocated by the military actions of the colonial wars and the American Revolution, the Abenaki either migrated into Canada or were absorbed into the Vermont population. Starting in the 1970s, there was a sustained effort to achieve some level of tribal recognition for the Abenaki, and in 2006 the General Assembly extended limited recognition, primarily to enhance opportunities for educational and economic assistance. Recognition did not extend to any Abenaki land claims..

      In 1609 the French explorer Samuel de Champlain (Champlain, Samuel de) discovered the lake in Vermont to which he gave his name. The French established the first permanent European settlement in 1666 on Isle La Motte, an island in northern Lake Champlain (Champlain, Lake). The name Vermont, derived from the French words vert and mont (“green mountains”), was applied to the region because of the thick coniferous growth that kept its mountains green year-round. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries Vermont served as a route for French and Indian incursions from Canada into Massachusetts.

      In 1724 the Dutch established a community in Pownal, and the first English-speaking settlers erected Fort Dummer on the Connecticut River near present-day Brattleboro. When the British won the French and Indian War (1754–63), the land was opened to settlement. At the time of the start of the American Revolution in 1775, about 20,000 people were living in Vermont. Many Vermont towns bear the names of the Connecticut and Massachusetts towns from which the early settlers came.

Revolution and statehood

 Although the region was explored long before the landing of the Pilgrims and was settled before the American Revolution, it began its early development not as a chartered royal colony but as a territory whose possession New Hampshire and New York disputed. In the decades before the Revolution, disputes—frequently escalating into armed conflicts—arose when land grants by New Hampshire conflicted with similar grants issued by New York. Between 1770 and 1775, many early settlers joined units of the Green Mountain Boys, led by Ethan Allen (Allen, Ethan), and repulsed the Yorkers (those who settled in Vermont under New York patents) who tried to control Vermont. Later, when the American Revolution began, the same Green Mountain Boys also asserted their independence from England. Their successful assault on Fort Ticonderoga (Ticonderoga), on the New York side of Lake Champlain in May 1775, has been called the first offensive action by American forces of the Revolution.

      In 1777 Vermonters created an independent republic and adopted a constitution. By declaring its independence, Vermont created a revolution within the American Revolution and presented the new continental government with a host of problems. To recognize Vermont as a new state might encourage other separatist movements, would alienate New York, and could perhaps undermine the war effort. The Continental Congress refused to recognize Vermont, though Vermont's importance to the success of the Revolution was widely acknowledged. At the Battle of Bennington (Bennington, Battle of) in August 1777, Vermont troops helped defeat a British force, setting up the American victory at Saratoga (Saratoga, Battles of) in October.

      Vermont's government, faced with New York's continued opposition and the refusal of the Continental Congress to offer recognition, followed an aggressive diplomacy that included temporarily annexing towns in New York and New Hampshire, as well as conducting discussions with the British in Canada on possible recognition of an independent Vermont. In 1790 New York finally gave up its claims to Vermont and the following year, after 14 years as an independent republic, Vermont was admitted into the union as the 14th state.

      During the early 19th century, Vermont's economy went through several cycles of boom and bust, including its rise and fall as a major sheep and wool producer. Vermont had an active Anti-Masonic Party (Anti-Masonic Movement), which controlled state government in the 1830s and carried the state for the Anti-Masonic presidential candidate William Wirt in 1832. Though the Whigs (Whig Party) controlled the state government in the 1840s, their control was tenuous, with gubernatorial candidates frequently unable to attain a majority of the vote. In 1854 antislavery and temperance forces joined to form the Republican Party, the second organization by that name in the country. The Republicans would not lose a statewide election until 1958 and also dominated both houses of the legislature during that period.

      More than 35,000 Vermonters fought in the American Civil War, more than 5,000 of whom died. Vermont became the site of the northernmost land action of the war when, in 1864, a band of Confederate soldiers crossed from Canada to raid St. Albans (Saint Albans Raid).

      Following the war, dairying emerged as the primary agricultural activity. The Republican Party prevented factionalism and maintained control of state government through an elaborate informal mechanism that apportioned candidacies east and west of the Green Mountains and set tenure limits on some elective offices. The ongoing emigration of Vermonters helped maintain a low population and thus assured the continued rural character of Vermont.

Modern period

  Former Vermont governor Calvin Coolidge (Coolidge, Calvin) became president in 1923, famously taking the oath of office by lamplight in the family home in Plymouth; he served until 1929. By the 1930s Vermont had committed to a sustained effort to attract tourism and develop a recreation industry. Traditional summer tourism was augmented by the development of ski areas in the 1930s, making Vermont a year-round attraction. An influx of new residents ended population stagnation and eroded traditional loyalties to the Republican Party. In 1958 a Democrat captured Vermont's lone congressional seat for one term, and in 1962 the Democratic Party captured the governorship for the first time since 1853. In 1965, under court order, the General Assembly abandoned its one town–one representative apportionment scheme, shifting the balance of power from the many small, rural towns to the state's population centres. In 1985 Vermont elected its first female governor, Madeleine Kunin, who served for three terms.

      In the 1990s Vermont's national delegation included a Democratic senator, a Republican senator, and an independent U.S. representative, Bernie Sanders, a self-proclaimed socialist. Sanders was the first independent to serve in the U.S. House of Representatives in 40 years, and he remained an independent when he ran for, and won, a Senate seat in 2006. Former governor Howard Dean, during whose term in office (1991–2003) Vermont passed a law recognizing same-sex civil unions (the first such law in the United States), ran for U.S. president in 2004.

      Population growth, changing settlement patterns, and changing economic realities have all influenced Vermont in contemporary times. Despite these changes, Vermont has retained much of its earlier character and its strong independent streak.

Charles Thomas Morrissey D. Gregory Sanford

Additional Reading

Federal Writers' Project, Vermont, Vermont: A Guide to the Green Mountain State (1937, reprinted 1989), is also available in a 3rd rev. ed., edited by Ray Bearse (1968); it is still an excellent source for information on many aspects of the state. Harold A. Meeks, Time and Change in Vermont: A Human Geography (1986), discusses both continuity and change and includes a look at 20th-century Vermont, while his The Geographic Regions of Vermont: A Study in Maps (1975), presents the physical, economic, and cultural characteristics of the state. DeLorme Mapping Company, The Vermont Atlas and Gazetteer, 10th ed. (2000), focuses on topography. Geography and local history are treated in Esther Munroe Swift, Vermont Place-Names (1977, reprinted 1996). Charles W. Johnson, The Nature of Vermont: Introduction and Guide to a New England Environment, new and expanded ed. (1998), combines history and natural history. Jan Albers, Hands on the Land: A History of the Vermont Landscape (2002), is a concise history of settlement patterns in Vermont. Colin G. Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600–1800: War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian People (1990), examines Vermont's Abenaki during the first 200 years of contact with European settlement. Vermont Life (quarterly) publishes illustrated articles on such topics as Vermont's environment, history, and crafts.Charles T. Morrissey, Vermont (1981), provides an overview of the history of modern Vermont by focusing on historical antecedents and distinctive characteristics. Michael A. Bellesiles, Revolutionary Outlaws: Ethan Allen and the Struggle for Independence on the Early American Frontier (1993), explores the democratic influences of the New England frontier that led to the creation and survival of Vermont as an independent republic, 1777–91. Randolph A. Roth, The Democratic Dilemma: Religion, Reform, and the Social Order in the Connecticut River Valley of Vermont, 1791–1850 (1987), is an in-depth look at social change in Vermont. Frank M. Bryan, Yankee Politics in Rural Vermont (1974), explores the changing nature of 20th-century Vermont politics. Samuel B. Hand, The Star That Set: The Vermont Republican Party, 1854–1974 (2002), provides an in-depth look at what was once the most Republican state in the country. Joe Sherman, Fast Lane on a Dirt Road: Vermont Transformed, 1945–1990 (1991), looks at the forces that changed Vermont's social and economic environment following World War II. Michael Sherman (ed.), Vermont State Government Since 1965 (1999), examines the state's governmental structure and issues. Michael Sherman, Gene Sessions, and P. Jeffrey Potash, Freedom and Unity: A History of Vermont (2004), is a good one-volume overview of Vermont history. T.D. Seymour Bassett (ed.), Vermont: A Bibliography of Its History (1981), is an excellent guide to sources. Vermont History (quarterly) publishes ongoing research.Charles Thomas Morrissey D. Gregory Sanford

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