Venice

/ven"is/, n.

1. Italian, Venezia. a seaport in NE Italy, built on numerous small islands in the Lagoon of Venice. 361,722.

2. Gulf of, the N arm of the Adriatic Sea.

3. a town in SW Florida. 12,153.

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I

Italian Venezia

City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 266,181), capital of Veneto region, northern Italy.

Built on the lagoon of Venice, it encompasses some 118 islands, the whole 90-mi (145-km) perimeter of the lagoon, and two industrial mainland boroughs. Refugees from northern invasions of the mainland founded settlements in the 5th century AD that were built uniquely on islands as protection against raids. Venice was a vassal of the Byzantine Empire until the 10th century. Beginning with control of a trading route to the Levant, it emerged from the Fourth Crusade (1202–04) as ruler of a colonial empire which included Crete, Euboea, Cyclades, the Ionian Islands, and footholds in Morea and Epirus. In 1381 it defeated Genoa after a century-long struggle for commercial supremacy in the Levant and eastern Mediterranean. In the 15th century, with the acquisition of neighbouring regions, the Venetian Republic became an extensive Italian state. It gradually lost its eastern possessions to Ottoman Turks, with whom Venice fought intermittently from the 15th to the 18th century; it gave up its last hold in the Aegean in 1715. The republic dissolved and the territory was ceded to Austria in 1797. Incorporated into Napoleon's kingdom of Italy in 1805, it was restored to Austria in 1815. A revolt against Austria (1848–49) eventually resulted in Venice being ceded to Italy in 1866. It suffered little damage during World War II, but flooding along its many miles of canals caused severe damage in 1966. The waters of the lagoon rise and flood the city on a regular basis, complicating efforts to preserve its architecture, which includes representations of Italian, Arabic, Byzantine, and Renaissance styles. There are some 450 palaces and homes of major historic importance in Venice. Notable among its 400 bridges is the Bridge of Sighs (built с 800) and among its churches is St. Mark's Basilica. Most of the city's workers find employment in tourism and related industries, though the city also plays a key market role within the vibrant economic system of the Veneto region.

II

(as used in expressions)

Venice Biennale

Venice Gulf of

Venice Peace of

Venice Treaty of

Venezia Tridentina

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▪ Florida, United States

      resort city, Sarasota county, west-central Florida, U.S. It lies along the Gulf of Mexico, about 20 miles (30 km) south of Sarasota. Originally a fishing village settled in the 1870s, it was later planned (c. 1925) as a retirement city for members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers; the project was abandoned after the stock market crash of 1929, but Venice survived as a small resort noted for tarpon fishing. Originally called Horse and Chaise for a formation of trees that resembled a horse and buggy, the city was renamed in 1888 by a settler who thought the area resembled the Italian city of Venice. It revived after 1960, when it replaced Sarasota as the winter headquarters for the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus.

      Light manufacturing (including windows and doors) augments tourism as the city's economic mainstay. Venice is a popular retirement area. Nearby is Oscar Scherer State Park, and there is a spa at Warm Mineral Springs, about 10 miles (16 km) east. Venice is known for the prehistoric sharks' teeth that can be found on its beaches; the annual Sharks Tooth and Seafood Festival is held in August. Inc. 1927. Pop. (1990) 16,922; (2000) 17,764.

▪ Italy

Introduction

Italian  Venezia 

   city, major seaport, and capital of both the provincia (province) of Venezia and the regione (region) of Veneto, northern Italy. An island city, it was once the centre of a maritime republic. It was the greatest seaport in late medieval Europe and the continent's commercial and cultural link with Asia. Venice is unique environmentally, architecturally, and historically, and in its days as a republic the city was styled la serenissima (“the most serene” or “sublime”). It remains a major Italian port in the northern Adriatic Sea and is one of the world's oldest tourist and cultural centres.

 Since the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797, the city has held an unrivaled place in the Western imagination and has been endlessly described in prose and verse. The luminous spectacle of ornate marbled and frescoed palaces, bell towers, and domes reflected in the sparkling waters of the lagoon under a blue Adriatic sky has been painted, photographed, and filmed to such an extent that it is difficult to distinguish the real city from its romantic representations. The visitor arriving in Venice is still transported into another world, one whose atmosphere and beauty remain incomparable.

 Today Venice is recognized as part of the artistic and architectural patrimony of all humanity, a fitting role for a city whose thousand-year economic and political independence was sustained by its role in global trading. The situation of the city on islands has limited modern suburban spread beyond the historic centre; its framework of canals and narrow streets has prevented the intrusion of automobiles; and its unmatched wealth of fine buildings and monuments dating from the period of commercial dominance has ensured a keen and almost universal desire for sensitive conservation. This concern for conservation is now extended not just to the city's monuments but to the very city itself, as rising water levels and subsidence of the land upon which Venice is built threaten the continued existence of the city in its present form. In 1987 Venice and its lagoon were collectively designated a UNESCO World Heritage site. Pop. (2006 est.) city, 61,611; comune, 268,934.

Physical and human geography

The landscape

Site

Situated at the northwestern end of the Adriatic Sea, Venice lies on an archipelago in the crescent-shaped Laguna Veneta (Venice Lagoon), which stretches some 32 miles (51 km) from the reclaimed marshes of Jesolo in the north to the drained lands beyond Chioggia at the southern end. The shallow waters of the lagoon are protected by a line of sandbanks, or lidi, whose three gaps, or porti, allow passage of the 3-foot (1-metre) tides and the city's maritime traffic. On the sandbanks are many small settlements, some of them centuries old. The best-known is the Lido itself, which has been a fashionable seaside resort since the 19th century.

Terraferma

      Although Venice may aptly be regarded as an isolated sea city, it has always had close links with the surrounding marshlands and the mainland of northern Italy. The Venetian republic included the perimeter of the lagoon, the dogado, within its territory. In addition, from the early 15th century it amassed a large land empire known as terraferma (“dry land”), stretching from the Istrian Peninsula (Istria) in the east to the borders of Milan in the west and from the Po River in the south to the high Alps in the north. From the 16th century onward, the Venetians invested heavily in the purchase, reclamation, and drainage of terraferma lands. The imprint of the republic may still be seen in former subject cities, such as Padua, Verona, and Vicenza, where Venetian Gothic palaces line the streets and the symbol of Venice, the lion of San Marco, stands over the city squares.

      Today the administrative city, or comune, of Venice embraces the 90-mile (145-km) perimeter of the lagoon, taking in the urban and industrial areas of Mestre and Marghera and the Marco Polo International Airport at Tessera. The proportion of the population of the comune that lives in Venice itself has shrunk steadily. At the beginning of the 20th century the historic city centre contained three-fourths of the comune's population, and at mid-century it still contained more than half. By the beginning of the 21st century that fraction had shrunk to less than one-fourth.

Lagoon and tides (tide)

      Originally formed by the interaction of Adriatic tidal currents and the waters of several Alpine rivers (Piave (Piave River), Sile, Bacchiglione, and Brenta), the lagoon has always been crucial to the survival of Venice. Its mud banks, shallows, and channels are a source of income from marine and bird life and from salt pans. The lagoon has served as protection (the Venetians defeated the Genoese in 1380 through their superior knowledge of the navigable channels) and as a natural sewerage system, with the tides flushing out the city's canals twice daily.

      But the lagoon requires careful husbandry to prevent it from threatening the very existence of Venice. The deepening of channels in the 20th century, the overextraction of fresh water from mainland aquifers, the rising of the Adriatic Sea, and the geologic sinking of the Po River basin have all combined to lower the land level, creating a serious flooding (flood) problem. On a regular basis, when high tides combine with winds from the south and east, the waters of the lagoon rise and flood the city, creating the acqua alta (“high water”) so familiar to Venetians, and elaborate raised platforms are laid out in main squares to allow tourists and others to walk around the city. A particularly severe inundation struck in 1966, prompting a series of national and even international efforts to study the problem and propose solutions. A scheme to build a mechanical barrage that could be raised in times of flooding to close the lagoon was initiated in 1988, when engineers began testing a prototype. However, progress has been hampered by overlapping local, regional, and national bureaucratic concerns, as well as worries over the effects of ambitious engineering schemes on the ecological balance of the lagoon. Venice has its own city council with ultimate responsibility for the daily life of the city, but a regional authority administers the Veneto area, which has hydrographic and industrial concerns that bear heavily on the problems of the lagoon and city. Moreover, ministries of the national government have a direct stake in museums and galleries, in port activities, and in historic buildings. Finally, many of the great industries are nationalized or partly owned by the state, including the railways, the airport, and what remains of the oil and chemical industries located in Marghera. Such concurrent jurisdictions and conflicts of interest have produced administrative stalemate, and, as a result of this inaction, Venice is still vulnerable to floods and could even see a repetition of the disaster of 1966.

Climate

      Most visitors experience Venice in summer, when average daytime temperatures are about 75 to 80 °F (about 24 to 27 °C), with a haze caused by high humidity frequently obscuring the view of the Alps across the lagoon. Spring and autumn bring clear, bright light, especially when winds are northerly, giving relief from the exhausting heat of the southerly sirocco. In January the mean average temperature is 36 °F (2.2 °C), and wintertime Venice is dulled and chilled by mists, lending the city an especially mysterious appearance. Annual rainfall averages about 34 inches (865 mm), of which more than 7 inches (185 mm) falls in October and November and about 6.5 inches (170 mm) in May and June.

Layout

  Settlement in the lagoon predates Roman times, but the present urban structure took shape in the early 7th century, when migrants from the mainland swelled existing fishing communities on the higher mudflats and sandbanks. Among these early settlements, Rivo Alto, its name corrupted over time to Rialto, was the most central and became the heart of Venice, linking together 118 separate islands with bridges and canals and subordinating all other settlements to the rule of its elected doge (duke). In all these lagoonal settlements the characteristic plan, still detectable in the street patterns, was dominated by a navigable channel from which side channels branched at intervals.

  More than 200 original canals have been linked together to form a dense urban network on either side of the curving Grand Canal, which describes a great backward S more than two miles long, from the railway station to San Marco Basin in front of the Doges' Palace. Its width varies from about 100 to 225 feet (30 to 70 metres), and it is lined by buildings that once were the palaces of great merchant families and the public warehouses, or fondaci, used in foreign trade.

      The original pattern of separate islands surrounding the Rialto is evident in the parishes of Venice. In many respects they remain distinct communities, with life centred on the square, or campo (site of the community well), and its parish church. Perhaps the most clearly recognizable such area today is the Ghetto, the islet on which from 1516 to 1797 Venice's Jews were confined. (Indeed, the very word ghetto was first used with reference to Venice.) The Ghetto is located in the northwestern part of the city and is surrounded by canals whose bridges were once raised and guarded at night. Because this was the only area in which Jews could live in Venice, houses are densely packed and rise to seven stories; alleyways are almost too narrow for two people to pass.

      Many parishes had their own minor guild or fraternity, and at festivals their representatives competed with one another to provide floats or oarsmen, a ritualized rivalry encouraged by the ruling patricians to promote civic stability. Over time the patchwork of local streets, canals, and quays has been modified to improve the overall structure of the city. Quayside paths have been widened to form canalside walkways, or fondamente, canals have been filled in (rio terà), and streets have been joined by passages under the houses. (For the visitor, trying to find an address in Venice is not made any easier by the practice of numbering houses consecutively through a whole district rather than along each street.)

Canal boats and bridges

 The best-known form of transport on the waterways of Venice is the gondola. Today there are only several hundred of these unique, keelless boats left, and they have long been outnumbered by other vessels. But their elegant, sleek shape and gleaming black paintwork have made them a symbol of Venice. Many writers have described the romance of Venice by gondola, and many tourists are still willing to pay high prices to be rowed at twilight through the canals to the singing of a gondolier. But it is many years since gondoliers could recite verses from such Italian poets as Ariosto (Ariosto, Ludovico) or Tasso (Tasso, Torquato) while maneuvering their amazingly flexible craft around the sharp bends of the minor canals. A number of gondolas still serve as ferries across the Grand Canal, but the cost of maintenance makes their ultimate disappearance likely.

      The canals are filled with a variety of motor-powered boats. They range from the vaporetti, public water buses run by the municipal transport system, to the private motor-launch taxis. Other specialized craft, such as the barges carrying fruits and vegetables, the garbage barges, ambulance and police launches, and the boats filled with tourists' baggage, make up a water scene of endless colour and variety.

 Venice is a walking city. Other than at the great parking lots at Rome Square and on the Lido, automobiles are banned from the city. At the risk of encountering frequent detours and dead ends, one can reach any point in Venice by foot—along the banks of the canals, on the paved streets, through the neighbourhood squares, and over the 400 or so canal bridges (ponti). Many of the traditional arched marble bridges remain, but large numbers of old bridges were replaced by wrought iron structures in the 19th century.

      The Grand Canal is spanned by three bridges. At its most dramatic bend is the famous Rialto Bridge, designed by the aptly named Antonio da Ponte (c. 1590). The other two bridges are of more recent origin: the Scalzi Bridge, at the railway station, was built of marble in 1932, and the Accademia Bridge, a high-arched wooden structure with a temporary look, also was built in the 1930s and has withstood foot traffic by being reinforced with steel.

Palaces

      The houses (case, or, in Venetian, ca') that line the streets and canals of the city range from the poorest blocks to the great palaces (palazzi). Ordinary houses generally rise three or four stories. They originally had external staircases and were grouped around a communal courtyard and well. Their simple rectangular doorways and window lights may be framed in unpolished marble; otherwise they are unornamented, their red brick or ochre-painted stucco walls giving a comfortable warmth to the townscape. But it is the palaces, not the ordinary dwellings, that front directly onto the larger canals, particularly the Grand Canal, with gaudily painted mooring posts marking their water entrances.

      Although architectural styles changed over time, the structure of these merchants' buildings remained fairly constant. The water story served as the merchant's offices and storerooms, while the floor above was occupied by the patrician family. This piano nobile has its principal room, or salone, overlooking the canal; it is lit by a central window group of five or six lights and, characteristically, two single lateral windows. This tripartite fenestration reflects the internal arrangement of rooms running back from the canal to a courtyard at the rear, which frequently contains gardens and greenery. Walls are often of brick faced with dressed stone. The most characteristic building stone is the brilliant white marble shipped cheaply into Venice from Istrian quarries. It is easy to carve but remarkably resistant to weathering, which is severe in the humid, saline—and now acidic—air of Venice.

 The facades of the palaces evolved stylistically from their original Byzantine (Byzantine art) form, characterized by tall, narrow arches—those of the early Gothic (Gothic art) period (13th to early 14th century) pointed and Moorish-looking and those of the 15th century adorned with fantastic trefoil and quatrefoil tracery. In the most ornate late Gothic palaces, such as the Ca' d'Oro (1425–c. 1440), the central panel extends across the whole facade and is repeated on two upper stories. In the late 15th century, Renaissance forms began to influence palace architecture, as in the Palazzo Corner, also called Ca' Grande (c. 1533–c. 1545, designed by Jacopo Sansovino (Sansovino, Jacopo)), and the Palazzo Grimani (c. 1556, by Michele Sanmicheli (Sanmicheli, Michele), completed 1575). Buildings such as these introduced a measured proportion, tight symmetry, and Classical vocabulary to the facade. Mannerist (Mannerism) and Baroque (Baroque period) palaces built in the 17th century present a decorated Classical style with heavy moldings and grotesques, as in the Palazzo Pesaro (1659–1710, by Baldassare Longhena (Longhena, Baldassare)). The variety of styles along the larger canals, unified by the chiaroscuro of deep-set windows, decorative paneling, and building materials, provides much of the visual excitement of the Venetian landscape.

Economy

Legacy of maritime commerce

      The landscape of Venice is as much a product of its economic activities, past and present, as of its physical environment. The enduring foundation of Venetian wealth was maritime commerce, initially in local products such as fish and salt from the lagoon, but rapidly expanding to include rich stores of merchandise as Venice became the entrepôt between Europe and the Middle East and Asia. The Rialto remains the core of Venetian commercial and mercantile activity. Fruit, fish, and other markets are concentrated under the open arcades of the Rialto New Building (1554, by Sansovino) and associated buildings. The Rialto Bridge and surrounding streets remain crowded with market stalls. Along the Merceria, the route from the Rialto Bridge to the Piazza San Marco (St. Mark's Square), are the offices of the major banks, still in the traditional banking quarter.

      Venetian trade required well-constructed vessels both for transport and for protection from pirates, rivals, and Turkish military forces. Shipbuilding inevitably became a major industry. It occupied a whole sector in the northeast of the city, the Arsenal—a vast assemblage of basins, yards, and workshops for making sails, ropes, and ordnance. At its entrance is an elaborately decorated gateway with a fine group of stone lions guarding what was until the 18th century Europe's largest industrial complex. Parts of the Arsenal are still used for Italian military purposes, though other parts have been converted into beautiful spaces for art and architecture exhibitions or for theatrical productions.

The port of Venice

      The main port and related activities have now shifted to the parish of Mendigola in the west. There the main cruise liners dock, and the offices of shipping lines occupy former palaces. But the real focus of commercial shipping today is Port Marghera, developed next to the suburb of Mestre on the mainland shore west of Venice. Marco Polo International Airport (1960) was built on reclaimed land at Tessera, to the northwest of the city. Although these areas are incorporated into the administration of Venice, the chief port activities are largely separate from the city proper. Their impact on the old city, however, has been considerable. Marghera was for 50 years the site of a huge oil-refining and petrochemical complex, easily visible from Venice and a source of air pollution that severely damaged its architecture. Although industrial activity at Marghera has declined, the long-term damage of pollution is still felt.

      On the other hand, Venice and Mestre play a key market role within the hugely important economic system of the Veneto region. The so-called “northeastern miracle” in this previously agricultural zone is based upon the production of high-quality goods by small and family-owned businesses in sectors such as textiles, sunglasses, ski boots, and other exports. Venice has contributed to this extraordinary development through the promotion of the image of Italy abroad and through the provision of political planning and financial services.

Traditional industries

      Scattered throughout Venice are small boatyards and other traditional luxury craft workshops producing lace, textiles, and furniture. One of Venice's oldest specialties is glassware. The finest products are of exquisite quality, but most of the present-day glass goods are trinkets for the tourist trade. In 1291 many of the glassworking furnaces were relocated on the island of Murano to the north as a precaution against fire. Murano remains the focus of present-day glass production, though the industry has declined considerably. Exhaust fumes from this ancient industry also have contributed to the corrosion of Venice's stonework.

      Other small island settlements such as Burano, Caorle, Malamocco, and Torcello traditionally depended on the local economic activities of the lagoon: fishing and fowling, salt production, and horticulture. Some settlements are swamped by seaside tourist developments, but the ancient trades are still carried on, though they have declined significantly. Fishermen in small craft continue to be common sights in the lagoon.

Tourism

      Since the end of the 18th century, tourism has been at the heart of the Venetian economy. Luxury establishments such as the Danieli Hotel and the celebrated Caffè Florian were developed in the 19th century for wealthy foreigners. Small hotels and shops (particularly souvenir and carnival mask shops) line each major street and square along the routes from the station and parking lots to the Rialto and San Marco. Most of the city's workers find employment in tourism and its related industries, now continuous through all seasons.

      The tourist industry has been actively encouraged by the authorities. In the early 1980s they revived the ancient Carnival during February, a complement to the round of events of the Biennale, an international gathering held every other year that includes art, architecture, film, dance, music, and theatre festivals. The International Venice Film Festival, part of the Biennale, is held on the Lido every September. Films are shown throughout the city, attracting thousands of actors, critics, and other members of the motion picture industry. These events, together with the promotion of Venice as an international conference centre, bind the city's economy ever more firmly to tourism.

      Mass tourism, however, has also created problems for the city. The infrastructure is often close to collapse under the weight of literally millions of visitors every year, and residents have to deal with extremely high prices dictated by the tourist industry. Indeed, Venice seems to have transformed itself into a protected “museum-city” with very little in the way of real urban communities or a cultural life apart from that designed for outsiders.

Cultural heritage: the myth of Venice

      Reacting to their physical environment and to a variety of cultural influences—from Italy, northern Europe, and the East—the Venetians consciously designed their city as an exceptional place. They regarded it as a divinely ordained centre of religious, civic, and commercial life, a community blessed by St. Mark, protected by its lagoon, and governed by a balanced constitution incorporating monarchy, aristocracy, and republican liberty. Historians refer to this perception as the “myth of Venice.” The architecture of the city, especially in the Renaissance, purposely emulated republican Rome, and the great rituals of state—the doge's procession from his palace to the basilica or the annual Marriage with the Sea, when the doge cast a gold ring into the lagoon as a “sign of true and perpetual dominion”—publicly expressed the myth.

San Marco

 The administrative heart of the Venetian republic was at San Marco, in the buildings surrounding the piazza and the piazzetta (“Little Square”). This spectacular piece of town planning depends for its impact on the articulation of paved open spaces, monumental buildings, carefully situated monuments, and the reflective waters of the lagoon.

The Molo

 At the water entrance to the piazzetta is the Molo, a broad stone quay that was once the ceremonial landing spot for great officials and distinguished visitors. This “front door” to Venice is marked by two massive granite columns brought from the Orient in the 12th century; one supports the winged lion of St. Mark (Mark, Saint) supporting a book and the other St. Theodore, Venice's first patron, standing on a crocodile.

The Doges' Palace

 On the right-hand side of the Molo is the Doges' Palace (Palazzo Ducale), whose crenellated mass appears to float upon the waters of the lagoon. Its plan, typical of Venetian palaces, is centred on an internal courtyard with a great staircase (Scala dei Giganti), and it incorporates three great architectural traditions—Gothic, Moorish, and Renaissance. Erected over many years after the burning of the original 9th-century structure in 976, most of the present building dates from the 14th to the 16th century. The palace was the core of political life in Venice—not only the residence of the elected doge (duke) but also the meeting place of the republic's governing councils and ministries. Its chambers and staircases were richly decorated by a succession of Venetian painters and craftsmen. On the east side of the palace runs a narrow canal spanned by the Bridge of Sighs, which once led to the state prisons and is immortalized in Lord Byron (Byron, George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron)'s Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–18).

San Marco Basilica

  Sculptured lions such as that mounted on the column on the Molo are to be found at many points within the square and on its buildings. The key to Venetian political iconography, they symbolize the evangelist St. Mark, whose body was said to be buried in San Marco Basilica, attached to the Doges' Palace. This splendid church, begun in 829 and completed about 1071, was traditionally the private chapel of the doges and effectively a political building. Its architectural design is Byzantine, with five vaulted domes (dome) set in a Greek cross (Greek-cross plan). The interior glows with light reflected from its undulating marbled pavements, its columns and polished stone panels, and its golden mosaics.

The Piazza San Marco

      Before the five arched portals of the basilica lies the Piazza San Marco, a vast paved and arcaded square. Napoleon called the piazza the finest drawing room in Europe. The northern and southern wings of the square are formed by two official buildings, the Old Procurators' Offices and the New Procurators' Offices. The buildings now house fashionable shops and elegant cafés, whose string ensembles compete with each other in summer months to attract customers to their open-air tables. At the basilica end of the Old Procurators' building stands the Clock Tower, a late 14th-century structure where the hours are struck by two Moorish figures.

      Tourists throng the square at all hours, outnumbered only by gluttonous pigeons. The Clock Tower rises over the entrance to the Merceria, the main shopping street leading to the Rialto, and stands in a direct line of sight to the columns on the Molo, at the end of the piazzetta. This sight line is emphasized by three flagpoles fronting the basilica and by Sansovino's Loggetta (“Small Loggia” or “Small Gallery”) at the base of the Campanile.

The Campanile

      The Campanile, the massive 324-foot (99-metre) bell tower of the basilica, is a free-standing, slightly rectangular structure sheathed in Venetian red-clay brick. Soaring above the pinnacles of San Marco, it dominates the townscape and is visible for miles across the lagoon. In 1902 it collapsed, making a fortune for the photographer who captured the event. The city council decided immediately to rebuild it around a core of reinforced concrete, and the work was completed by 1912. Today an elevator brings tourists to the belfry, which is made of white Istrian limestone and is open on all four sides, affording a spectacular panorama of the island, the mainland, and the sea.

      At the base of the Campanile is the Loggetta, a colonnaded portico designed by Sansovino. Constructed of red Verona marble and embellished with white marble of Carrara, verde antique (a mottled green marble), and white Istrian limestone, the Loggetta was intended to serve as a suitable backdrop for Venetian noblemen to gather before processing in state to the Doges' Palace. It was crushed by the collapse of the Campanile in 1902 but was meticulously restored using its original materials. The Loggetta now serves as a foyer for tourists waiting to use the bell tower's elevator.

The Old Library

      The Campanile stands close to the 21 bays of the Old Library (1529, also called the National Marcian Library or the Library of St. Mark), on the western side of the piazzetta. The library was designed by Sansovino to house a great collection of humanist texts and manuscripts bequeathed in 1468 to the republic by Bessarion, Latin patriarch of Constantinople. Now a major research library, it numbers among its treasures Marco Polo (Polo, Marco)'s will, a manuscript in Petrarch's hand, and many books and maps printed when Venice was a great publishing and cartographic centre.

Trade guild buildings

 The oligarchic form of government during the republic excluded from power all non-noble Venetian families. There were, however, other ways in which ordinary Venetians could participate in public life. One of these was through the scuole, six major and numerous minor philanthropic confraternities and guilds that originated in the 13th century. Each school had a two-story meeting hall used for gatherings of its members and for discharging its charitable functions. The six great schools became enormously wealthy, enriching their buildings with splendid architectural decoration, as at the Great School of San Marco (founded c. 1260, rebuilt after a fire 1487–95; now a hospital), with its trompe l'oeil marble panels. The painted panels and ceilings of the Great School of San Rocco (instituted 1478, completed 1560) are masterpieces by Tintoretto. The School of San Giorgio degli Schiavoni (for Slavic merchants) has the finest collection of Vittore Carpaccio (Carpaccio, Vittore)'s works outside Venice's chief gallery, the Academy of Fine Arts, whose own collection came in part from a confraternity of flagellants, the school of San Giovanni Evangelista (founded 1261).

Churches

 San Marco Basilica was the focus of public religious life, but the scores of other Venetian churches are an essential element of the city's landscape. Their campaniles, rarely perpendicular, punctuate the skyline; their ornate facades grace the squares, from the delicate Gothic of Madonna dell'Orto (c. 1350, rebuilt in the early 15th century) and the restrained elegance of the early Renaissance at Santa Maria dei Miracoli (1481–89) to the Baroque flamboyance of San Moisè (1668).

  The most impressive churches are those of the medieval mendicant orders, the Dominicans (Dominican) and Franciscans (Franciscan). The Dominican church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo (San Zanipolo in the Venetian dialect; founded in 1246 and consecrated in 1430) is of rose-coloured stone, its vast interior designed for the large congregations of urban poor whom it served. As a burial place, it was favoured by noble families; a number of doges lie there, commemorated by richly wrought sepulchral monuments. The church's altarpieces, painted by Titian and Giovanni Bellini (Bellini, Giovanni), were partially destroyed in a fire in 1867, and for masterworks it can no longer rival the Franciscan Santa Maria dei Frari (founded c. 1250, completed c. 1443), whose enormous Gothic mass rises in the densely settled area west of the Rialto. Titian's Assumption (1516–18) stands over its high altar, and the church and sacristy display a magnificent collection of Venetian religious paintings from the High Renaissance.

   In contrast to these great Gothic churches, and indeed to the small parish churches enmeshed in the urban fabric, are the church of La Salute and the Palladian (Palladianism) churches seen across the water from San Marco. All serve a monumental as much as a religious function. Santa Maria della Salute (begun in 1631/32 under Baldassare Longhena (Longhena, Baldassare) and consecrated in 1687), erected in thanksgiving for release from plague, occupies a spectacular site where the Grand Canal opens into the San Marco Basin. Its mass of brilliant white marble rises majestically above the Gothic palaces of the Grand Canal. The churches of San Giorgio Maggiore (1566, completed in 1610), Il Redentore (1577–92), and Le Zitelle (1582–86) were all designed by Andrea Palladio (Palladio, Andrea); their Roman Classical facades were intended to be seen across the waters of the Giudecca Canal. San Giorgio and La Salute turn the open lagoon in front of San Marco into an aquatic extension of the piazza. Il Redentore is linked to Venice proper by a temporary bridge every July on the Feast of the Redeemer, when illuminated boats fill the Giudecca Canal and there is a display of fireworks.

Painting

      Just as the city's architecture reflects notions of Venice as a place for public ritual, so too Venetian painting evokes the “myth of Venice.” The magnificent art treasures of the republic now grace churches, palaces, and galleries throughout the city. Early paintings were heavily influenced by Byzantine (Byzantine art) traditions, as can be seen in the religious icons of Lorenzo and Paolo Veneziano and in the taste for mosaic patternings and vibrant colour and the love of light that are characteristic of the Venetian school. Painting styles evolved in concert with broader European tastes, and in the 18th century much of the work became more frivolous, even voluptuous, no longer addressing serious themes. Nonetheless, the sense of sparkling colour, the contrasts of light and shade, and the reflective intensity of sky, stone, and water so immediately apparent on the streets and canals of Venice reverberate through all its artistic productions.

      The enduring theme of Venetian culture is Venice itself. From the late 15th-century townscape paintings by Vittore Carpaccio (Carpaccio, Vittore) and Gentile Bellini (Bellini, Gentile) to the High Renaissance Madonnas and saints in landscapes by Giovanni Bellini (Bellini, Giovanni), Giorgione, and Titian, the Mannerist (Mannerism) canvases of Paolo Veronese (Veronese, Paolo) and Tintoretto, and the rich early 18th-century townscapes of Canaletto, G.B. Piazzetta (Piazzetta, Giovanni Battista), and Francesco Guardi (Guardi, Francesco), Venetian painting returned constantly to themes celebrating the city, its great families, its legends, its saints, and its victories. Venetian art was more often than not political art; like all cultural life in Venice, it was subordinated to the interests of the state.

Music

      Colour and splendour reflecting civic pride are evident in Venetian music too. The works written for several separate choirs by Giovanni Gabrieli (Gabrieli, Giovanni) and Claudio Monteverdi (Monteverdi, Claudio) for San Marco Basilica echoed around its Byzantine interior with stirring effect. After the opening in 1637 of the San Cassiano Theatre (Europe's first public opera house), the commercial flair of Venice's patricians, allied to the secular ambitions of choirmasters of San Marco such as Monteverdi and Francesco Cavalli (Cavalli, Francesco) (both noted opera composers) and Giovanni Legrenzi (Legrenzi, Giovanni), made Venice the operatic capital of Europe.

      Vocal and instrumental traditions were strengthened in the 18th century when four ospedali, orphanages run by churches, incorporated conservatories of music (conservatory). Antonio Vivaldi (Vivaldi, Antonio) was master of music at the Santa Maria della Pietà Hospice between 1703 and 1741. Venice's opera house, La Fenice Theatre, built in 1792, became a major Italian music centre. The structure was severely damaged by fire in 1996. The premieres of Gioachino Rossini (Rossini, Gioachino)'s Tancredi (1813) and Guiseppe Verdi's Rigoletto (1851) and La Traviata (1853) at La Fenice were witnessed by their composers. Many foreign composers also developed a special attachment to the city.

Motion pictures

      Venice has had a strong attachment to the cinema since 1937, when the International Venice Film Festival, held annually in the Palazzo del Cinema on the Lido, was established. Motion-picture directors have often used Venice as a ready-made set for their films, from Luchino Visconti (Visconti, Luchino) (Senso, 1954; Morte a Venezia [Death in Venice], 1971) to Nicolas Roeg (Don't Look Now, 1973) to Woody Allen (Allen, Woody) (Everyone Says I Love You, 1996).

Contemporary life

      For Venice, adaptation to the demands of the modern world is often a painful process. While the era of vast refining and petrochemical development along the lagoon shore may be over, its damage to Venice in visual and environmental terms has been immense. After the disastrous floods of 1966, UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) began coordinating an international effort to preserve the city. A number of national committees too now exist to save Venice and its art treasures from the combined effects of corrosive air pollution, rising damp, flooding in high-water periods, sheer age, and even defacement by pigeons. The completion of an aqueduct from the nearby Alps to Marghera has prevented further aquifer exhaustion, and the effects of international funding are increasingly visible in renovated buildings and monuments.

      Venice still sustains a distinct urban life. Away from the main tourist routes, children use the squares as playing fields, a poor substitute for city parks, playgrounds, and modern school amenities, all of which are in short supply. The university at Ca' Foscari, a modern foundation, has important schools of architecture and planning and strong programs in languages and linguistics. The renovated State Archives is an international centre of scholarship, its documentary collections covering a thousand years of the Venetian republic. It is complemented by other scholarly centres such as the National Marcian Library, the Correr Civic Museum, and the Cini Foundation.

      Although planning regulations severely restrict alterations to buildings, there are examples of modern additions and structures. The fire station of Foscari Canal makes use of the traditional architectural vocabulary; other buildings, such as the headquarters of the Venetian Savings Bank in the Campo Manin, are uncompromisingly modern. Ignazio Gardella's house on the Zattere (1957) is a fine example of contemporary design that nonetheless blends in with the Venetian environment. Some of the industrial architecture of the city is also interesting, such as the stunning Mulino Stucky flour mill and warehouse, built on the Giudecca in the 19th century and closed in 1954. Stunning examples of Belle Époque-style architecture can be found on the Lido, such as the famous Hôtel des Bains (1900).

      A growing problem for Venice is the loss of population from the city core. Faced with poor social amenities and old, decaying, often damp buildings with rents inflated by the costs of renovation, demands of the tourist industry, and wealthy foreign residents (who are often absent from their houses), Venetians have elected in ever-increasing numbers to move into modern apartments in the mainland boroughs of Mestre and Marghera or on the Lido. This exodus has produced a daily commuting problem and has left the city of Venice with a smaller resident population than many of its formerly subject towns. It threatens to turn Venice into a museum city—a glorious spectacle whose architectural and artistic heritage is preserved, as it should be, but whose daily life is almost a parody of the vital unity of commerce, piety, politics, and ritual that was the pride of la serenissima.

Denis E. Cosgrove John Foot

History

The early period

Origin of the city

      Uniquely among Italy's chief cities, Venice came into being after the fall of the Roman Empire (ancient Rome) in the West. The Lombard hordes, whose incursions into northern Italy began in AD 568, drove great numbers of mainlanders onto the islands of the lagoon, previously the homes of itinerant fishermen and salt workers. The isolated communities, literally islands of Veneto-Byzantine (Byzantine Empire) civilization, became part of the exarchate of Ravenna when it was created in 584. When the mainland Byzantine city of Oderzo fell to the Lombards in 641, political authority was shifted to one of the islands in the Venetian lagoon.

      The first elected doge, or duke, was Orso, chosen in an anti-Byzantine military declaration in 727, but he was succeeded by Byzantine officials until about 751, when the exarchate of Ravenna came to an end. There followed decades of internal political strife among various settlements vying for supremacy and between pro- and anti-Byzantine factions; also involved were attempts by church authorities to acquire temporal influence. Finally the doge Obelerio and his brother Beato formed an alliance with the Franks (Frank) of Italy and placed Venice under the authority of the Italian king Pippin (died 810) in order to free themselves from Byzantine control.

      Pro-Byzantine reaction to this event under the doges of the Parteciaco family led to the transfer of the seat of government to the Rialto group of islands, by then the centre for exiles in the factional fighting. Though a Franco-Byzantine treaty of 814 guaranteed to Venice political and juridical independence from the rule of the Western Empire, it did not confirm any effective dependence on the Byzantine Empire, and by 840–841 the doge was negotiating international agreements in his own name. The unusual legal and political position of the small independent duchy, situated in territorial isolation between two great empires, contributed greatly to its function as a trading intermediary.

      A long succession of serious disputes between leading families concerning the office of doge did not halt the rapid development of trade. Increase in private wealth led to the gradual achievement of internal stability by creating a broader ruling class that was capable of putting a limit to the power of the doge. Gradually a national consciousness developed. Beginning in the late 9th century, the doges were chosen by popular election, though the right was frequently abused during times of civil strife. Finally the group of Rialto islands was solemnly transformed into the city of Venice (civitas Venetiarum).

The new order

      The final collapse of family faction rule led to a change in the system of government, inaugurated by Doge Domenico Flabanico (1032–42). He restored to the people the sovereign right to elect the doge, but the term populus was in practice restricted to the residents of the Rialto and, more narrowly, to a select group of nobles. The executive organ was the ducal curia, and the legislative assembly was summoned to approve the doge's acts. A new church was built for St. Mark, symbol of the Venetian spirit, under Doge Domenico Contarini (1043–70), an energetic defender of the religious independence of the duchy.

Growth of trade and power

      In the conflict between papacy and empire, Contarini and his successors remained neutral (despite the complaints of Pope Gregory VII), while safeguarding Venetian economic interests in the Adriatic when the conflict began to be reflected on the Dalmatian coast. But the greatest danger to Venetian interests was the 11th-century Norman expansion under Robert Guiscard, which threatened to cut Venetian communications to the south. The successful action taken against the Normans by Doge Domenico Selvo and his successor Vitale Falier helped to assure Venetian freedom on the Mediterranean Sea.

Relations with the Byzantine Empire

      In gratitude for Venetian aid against the Normans, the Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus granted Venice unrestricted trade throughout the Byzantine Empire, with no customs dues, a privilege that marked the beginning of Venetian activity in the East (1082). The Adriatic was not yet secured, however; Dalmatian ports were threatened by the Hungarians and Slavs, with whom it was difficult to come to agreement.

      Toward the end of the 11th century, the Crusades focused the newly awakened trading interests of the West on the Mediterranean. At first Venice was chiefly concerned with gaining control of the European trading ports of the Byzantine Empire, leaving to private interests the commercial opportunities in Syria and Asia Minor. Although they had been the first to win trade concessions and a commercial quarter in Constantinople, the Venetians antagonized the Byzantines by their arrogance and lawlessness as well as by their superior enterprise. In helping the emperor Manuel I Comnenus drive the Normans out of Corfu (1147–49), they offended him by their aggressive behaviour.

      Soon the mutual dislike between Venetians and Byzantines ripened into hatred. The emperor encouraged merchants from the Italian republics of Genoa and Pisa to compete in Byzantine markets, and the Venetians responded by destroying the establishments of their rivals. In 1171, to maintain order in his dominions, the emperor arrested all Venetian residents in Constantinople and the provinces and confiscated their goods. Relations were patched up in 1187 and again in 1198, but the Venetians remained embittered.

The commune

      All this time the expansion of Venice along the borders of the lagoon and across the Adriatic on the Dalmatian coast not only enriched its patrimony but also created an awareness of its own political power. Between 1140 and 1160, in response to the needs of its increased territory and growing economy, Venice underwent a revolutionary change in its political structure, reorganizing itself as a republic. The doge lost his monarchic character, becoming a mere official (though he still assumed resounding titles), and a commune took over the powers, functions, and prerogatives of the state. All political and administrative matters were placed in the hands of the Great Council of 45. A Minor Council of six members exercised executive powers alongside the doge, and magistrates were granted administrative and judicial functions.

Trade conflicts

      Venetian bitterness against the Byzantines found an outlet in the Fourth Crusade, which captured and sacked Constantinople in 1204 with the doge Enrico Dandolo among its leaders. In the subsequent partition of Byzantine territory between Venetians and Crusaders, Venice acquired a commercial empire in the eastern Mediterranean. It included many of the Aegean islands, most importantly Crete and parts of Euboea, with valuable trading stations and fortified lookout posts on the Greek mainland. The doges adopted the title of Lord of One-Quarter and One-Eighth of the Entire Byzantine Empire (Quartae Partis et Dimidiae Totius Imperii Romaniae Dominator). A special magistrate, appointed from Venice, administered the substantial Venetian colony in Constantinople.

      In 1261 the Byzantine emperor in exile at Nicaea, with the support of the Genoese (Genoa), recovered the city and evicted the Venetians. The emperor rewarded the Genoese with privileges that challenged the Venetian monopoly of trade and opened up to Genoa the Black Sea markets. The Venetians retained control of many of the Greek islands, however, and gradually found their way back to partial favour in Byzantium through a series of treaties. But when the last of the Crusader strongholds in Syria fell to the Muslims in 1291, Venetian merchants who had been dispossessed moved north to dispute the Black Sea trade with the Genoese. For nearly two centuries thereafter, Venice and Genoa were periodically at war.

The patriciate

      Meanwhile, at home the Venetian state was being built up. In 1242 the civil statutes of Jacopo Tiepolo regulated civil and economic relations; maritime statutes had been established in 1239. The number of elected members of the Great Council was raised from 45 to 60 and then to 100. The Council of 40 (Quarantia; first mentioned in 1223) received powers of jurisdiction, and the Consiglio dei Rogati (60 members; founded mid-13th century), invested with the control of economic affairs, in time assumed all legislative functions and the honorific title of Senate.

      In the 11th and 12th centuries the Michiel and Falier families had tried in vain to perpetuate their ducal power, and restrictive electoral systems were instituted to prevent the formation of committed family factions. In the 13th century similar attempts by the Ziani and Tiepolo families also failed. In 1268 an interlocking process of choice by lot and voting alternately among the members of the Great Council was introduced to select the next doge.

      Between 1290 and 1300, new laws restricted the right to take part in the government to families traditionally performing magistrate's duties. The patrician class was not created by the “closing of the Great Council” (serrata del Maggior Consiglio) achieved by these laws, but it received its legal status from them. Henceforward anyone claiming personal power had to act outside the patrician order and rely on the people; and the people were linked so closely to the patricians by their economic needs that sufficient support was always lacking. Thus, the conspiracy of Marin Bocconio failed (1299), as did those of Bajamonte Tiepolo and the Querini brothers (1310) and later of Marin Falier (1354). The special character of Venetian society created a governing class very different from that of the other Italian communes or of the continental states. To counter any attempts at sole personal rule, the Council of Ten was established (1310) to police the patrician order and defend the existing regime.

Struggle for naval supremacy

      By the beginning of the 14th century the republic was swept into struggles on the mainland of Italy and in the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas. When the Scaligeri came to power in Verona, the republic made alliance with the Carraresi of Padua, with the Florentines, and with the Visconti of Milan, who feared the rise of a strong territorial lordship in the heart of northern Italy. Deviating from its strictly maritime policy, Venice established sovereignty over Treviso, thereby ensuring its own food supply but also taking on the defense of a land frontier.

      The antagonism and rivalry with Genoa were rekindled. The conflict, carried on mainly in Dalmatia, was made more difficult for all by the spread of the Black Death (1348), by the economic and financial crisis caused by the war itself, and by the ineptitude of the military operations. In the alternation of victories and defeats, both sides exhausted their energies and resources. At last a second anti-Venetian coalition brought the war almost into Venice itself; at Pula (Pola) and at Chioggia, Venice first was defeated and then won the war (1380–81). The Peace of Turin (1381) eliminated Genoese political influence from the Mediterranean and the East, leaving the Venetian government arbiter of the sea routes.

Zenith of power

      The Venetian victory over Genoa took place under the threat of Turkish (Ottoman Empire) advance in the East. The Venetians had to negotiate a state of neutrality with the Turks and find another economic base to compensate for the smaller yield now to be expected from trade with the East, so they turned to the Italian mainland, first to rid themselves of neighbouring lordships and then to defend and exploit the rich lands they had acquired. For a time, Venetian territorial rule went no further than the Mincio and Livenza rivers, but beyond the Livenza lay the politically and economically important principality of the patriarch of Aquileia, through which passed the main routes to Germany and to Istria. Because the patriarch could not guarantee peace and order, Venice incorporated the principality in the Venetian domains (1420).

      Venetian territory now covered roughly the areas of the modern regions of Veneto and Friuli–Venezia Giulia, together with the Istrian Peninsula. The doge Tommaso Mocenigo maintained that his city had reached its political and economic zenith; it had a solid base in Italy that could compensate for its losses in the East, and it should not expect indefinite progress. In fact, efforts to enlarge its conquests might be dangerous, and it was better to preserve, not to risk, its accumulated wealth. Mocenigo's successors, however, did not heed his warning.

Political and economic decline

      When he became Venice's doge in 1423, Francesco Foscari (Foscari, Francesco) embarked upon a series of wars in mainland Italy, particularly against Milan. Greed for conquering new territory involved the Venetians in a tangled web of Italian balance-of-power politics and in conflicts between the great powers of Europe on a scale out of proportion to Venetian forces and direct interests. The Peace of Lodi (Lodi, Peace of) (1454) was followed by the formation of the Italian League to restore political balance among the Italian states, but the accord was ephemeral and Italy was threatened with foreign intervention.

      Meanwhile, the Turks were encroaching upon the Byzantine Empire in the East; Thessalonica fell in 1430 and Constantinople in 1453. Further Turkish moves prompted Venice to defend its eastern territories, but in 1470 Euboea fell into Turkish hands. Peace with the Turks was finally achieved in 1479. The Venetians, however, soon became involved in another war, this time with Ferrara. Venice's conquest of the Polesine region (1484) increased the opposition of the other Italian states to Venetian territorial expansion.

Europeans and Turks against Venice

      This internal discord made Italy a prey to invading foreigners, Spanish, French, and German. By 1508 these powers, together with the pope, the Hungarians, the Savoyards, and the Ferrarese, united to form the League of Cambrai (Cambrai, League of) against the Venetians, who were defeated at the Battle of Agnadello. Venice was saved from the worst results of this event by internal discord within the League of Cambrai, but Venetian territories on the mainland were diminished. At the same time, the republic was experiencing an economic crisis. Not only was the Eastern market lost, but the discovery of new lands in the West and new trade routes to the East released Europe from dependence on Venetian merchants. Venice ceased to be a Mediterranean power, and, as a European power, it lacked the advantage that the Atlantic countries had of direct access to the New World.

      Venetian policy in the 16th century was dictated by the need to keep intact its political, economic, and territorial heritage against the advance of the Turks on the one side and the pressure of the great western European powers on the other. This need supplied the reason for Venice's intervention in the Italian crisis of the emperor Charles V; for its struggle against the Turks, from the defeat of Préveza in 1538 to the victory of Lepanto and the loss of Cyprus in 1571; and for its tenacious resistance to pressure from the pope. So Venice declined into economic stagnation, embittered by a constitutional conflict between the Consiglio dei Rogati and the Council of Ten for control of the public finances. Venetian peace and neutrality meant defending the immediate interests of the nation but ceasing to take part in problems in which it was not directly concerned. Thus, the spirit of political and religious conservatism grew increasingly tenacious in Venice.

      A political crisis was created by the papal (papacy) interdict of Venice in 1606, concerned not with heresy or reform but with temporal prerogatives of the papacy. Paolo Sarpi (Sarpi, Paolo), the energetic defender of Doge Leonardo Doná's policy, which had provoked the Roman Curia, never contested the legitimacy of papal power, but in the temporal sphere he denied that it carried any prerogatives superior to the sovereign rights of the state.

      After a long campaign (1645–69), Crete, Venice's last possession in the eastern Mediterranean, fell to the Turks, the Venetians being allowed to retain only a few strongholds. This blow to morale was mitigated, however, by the preservation of Dalmatia, and the government, after allying itself with Austria, attempted to reestablish itself in the eastern Mediterranean by liberating the Morea (Peloponnese) from the Turks. There the brilliant campaign of Francesco Morosini in 1684–88 assured Venice of this new Greek territory, which was finally handed over in 1699. But the conquest proved profitless and became an expensive burden, and in 1718 the Morea was returned to the Turks. Thus ended Venetian activity in the eastern and southern Mediterranean, save for an unsuccessful attempt in 1769 on Algerian and Tunisian pirates under Angelo Emo.

End of the Venetian republic

      During its later years the Venetian republic was estranged from the fervour of new ideas germinating in other nations. Venetian life had crystallized inescapably. The plans of Angelo Querini, Giorgio Pisani, and Carlo Contarini, who in the 18th century called themselves reformers, did not go beyond those of the noble class that for three centuries had controlled the government and that existed to uphold ancestral tradition or to satisfy personal ambition.

      The end of the republic came after the outbreak of the French Revolution. Napoleon (Napoleon I), determined to destroy the Venetian oligarchy, claimed as a pretext that Venice was hostile to him and a menace to his line of retreat during his Austrian campaign of 1797. The Peace of Leoben left Venice without an ally, and Ludovico Manin, the last doge, was deposed on May 12, 1797. A provisional democratic municipality was set up in place of the republican government, but later in the same year Venice was handed over to Austria.

      In 1848 the revolutionary leader Daniele Manin (Manin, Daniele) set up a provisional republican government, but it fell the following year. After the defeat of Austria by the Prussians in 1866, Venice was ceded to Italy, which had been a united kingdom since 1861.

In unified Italy

 The subsequent growth of Venice was attendant upon its role in the commercial life of Italy and upon exploitation of its inherent physical and aesthetic attributes. The city had lost a bit of its island character and some of its insular mentality in 1846, when a causeway nearly 2 miles (3 km) in length brought the railway across 222 arches from the mainland. It lost even more in 1932 when a parallel road was built to give access to motor vehicles. Each link was stoutly resisted by persons who wished to leave the city unchanged, and they succeeded in forcing wheeled vehicles to be garaged at the landward edge of the island. Similar battles continue between traditionalists and modernists.

      In the political sphere, Venice was run by leftist governments immediately after World War II, and these were replaced by centre-left or centrist administrations for much of the 1950s and '60s. During the events of 1968, there were long occupations by students of the architecture faculty in the city as well as massive strikes by workers at Port Marghera. The 1968 film festival was also the scene of large protests. Later the Socialists ran the city, but their plans for massive development, including a world's fair proposed in the mid-1980s, were blocked by protests over possible damage to the city. Socialist rule was swept away by corruption scandals in the 1990s, allowing the victory of a reformist intellectual mayor, Massimo Cacciari, who attempted to modernize Venice while protecting its immense heritage. Cacciari's seven years in power saw many changes in the administration of the city, but he was unable to secure action on such basic structural problems as population loss and high water.

      The 1990s also saw Venice become a symbol of the regionalist politics of the Northern Leagues (Lega Nord), a collection of parties that advocated a federal structure for Italy and greater autonomy in particular for the country's prosperous northern regions. Northern regionalism began in Veneto in the early 1980s, and it was in Venice in 1996 that Umberto Bossi, leader of the Northern League, read a so-called declaration of independence of a separate “Padanian” state. Venice thus found itself the capital of the most regionalist of all elected regional governments. In general, however, the city's voters resisted extreme politics, and Venice remained an oasis of centre-left ideology within the Veneto region.

      In a broad sense, the entire history of Venice has been that of a struggle to control and utilize the environment, and indeed the most urgent problems confronting the present-day city are environmental. In the second half of the 20th century, the deterioration of ancient buildings and art treasures, which had long been associated with natural phenomena such as flooding and subsidence, was intensified by an atmosphere laden with sulfuric acid, much of it generated by industrial and domestic smoke. As in other cities in which monuments and works of art stand exposed, air pollution corroded and defaced many priceless examples of stonework from the Venetian past. Severely damaging storms and floods in November 1966 stimulated increased efforts to rescue the historic city from environmental destruction, yet flood-control projects (big and small) have been blocked through a combination of inefficiency, corruption, and overprotection of Venice through special laws and ecological politics. Venice has always been a city of production, from the invention of mass boat and ship construction in the Arsenal to the industrialization of Port Marghera. If the campaign for preservation fails, there seems little that can be done to arrest the city's decline—unless the battle is won by those who adore this most sublime of all cities.

Roberto Cessi John Foot

Additional Reading

General

Views and descriptions of the modern city are found in many well-illustrated guides: Hugh Honour, The Companion Guide to Venice, 4th ed. (1997); Guido Alberto Rossi and Franco Masiero, Venice from the Air (1988); Olivier Bernier and Fulvio Roiter, Venice II (1985); and Alta Macadam, Venice, 8th ed. (2007), in the Blue Guide series. Life in Venice is surveyed in Shirley Guiton, A World by Itself: Tradition and Change in the Venetian Lagoon (1977); Jan Morris, Venice, 3rd rev. ed. (1993); Alessandro Savella and Nantas Salvalaggio, The Carnival of Venice (1984; originally published in Italian, 1984); George Bull, Venice: The Most Triumphant City (1980, reissued 1982); and Christopher Hibbert, Venice: The Biography of a City (1988, reissued 1997).Observations and reflections on Venice can also be found in a number of works by literary individuals who lived or traveled in Venice. These include chapters of Giacomo Casanova, History of My Life, 12 vol. in 6 (1966–71, reissued 1997; trans. from French 1960–62 ed.; originally published 1826–38), by the notorious Venetian adventurer; Charles Dickens, Pictures from Italy (1846), written by the Victorian novelist following a European tour, available in many later editions; John Ruskin, The Stones of Venice, 3 vol. (1851–53, reprinted 1979), a major study of the course of history as reflected in architecture, also available in abridged versions; W.D. Howells, Venetian Life, rev. and enlarged ed. (1907), written by the American novelist after his posting as U.S. consul to Venice in 1860–65; Henry James, Italian Hours (1909, reprinted 1987), by the great transatlantic novelist who set many of his stories in Italy; and Mary McCarthy, Venice Observed (1956, reissued 1963), an illustrated travelogue by the American novelist and critic.

History

A history of the Venetian republic is available in John Martin and Dennis Romano (eds.), Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797 (2000). Recent Italian historiography includes Storia della cultura veneta, 6 vol. in 10 (1976–86), and Storia di Venezia (1992– ), published by the Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana. Also useful are Roberto Cessi, Storia della repubblica di Venezia, 2 vol. (1944–46, reissued in 1 vol., 1981), a history by Venice's foremost historian; and William H. McNeill, Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081–1797 (1974, reprinted 1986). Other historical studies include Guido Ruggiero, Violence in Early Renaissance Venice (1980); Alberto Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, 1580–1615 (1967; originally published in Italian, 1961); Donald E. Queller, The Venetian Patriciate: Reality Versus Myth (1986); Dennis Romano, Patricians and Popolani: The Social Foundations of the Venetian Renaissance State (1987); Margaret L. King, Venetian Humanism in an Age of Patrician Dominance (1986); D.S. Chambers, The Imperial Age of Venice, 1380–1580 (1970); Edward Muir, Civic Ritual in Renaissance Venice (1981), on the role of public display in the life of the republic; M.E. Mallett and J.R. Hale, The Military Organization of a Renaissance State: Venice, c. 1400 to 1617 (1984), on the armed forces and power politics; Robert Finlay, Politics in Renaissance Venice (1980), on the complex political structure that was in place at the height of the republic; William J. Bouwsma, Venice and the Defense of Republican Liberty: Renaissance Values in the Age of the Counter Reformation (1968, reissued 1984), on the evolution and political uses of the “myth of Venice”; and Garry Wills, Venice: Lion City: The Religion of Empire (2001). The 1848 revolution in Venice is discussed in Paul Ginsborg, Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848–49 (1978).Histories of the economic and social conditions and commerce include Frederic C. Lane, Venice: A Maritime Republic (1973); Frederic C. Lane and Reinhold C. Mueller, Money and Banking in Medieval and Renaissance Venice: Coins and Moneys of Account (1985); Peter Lauritzen, Venice: A Thousand Years of Culture and Civilization (1978, reissued 1981); and a collection of earlier works by Frederic C. Lane, Studies in Venetian Social and Economic History, ed. by Benjamin G. Kohl and Reinhold C. Mueller (1987). Also of interest are James C. Davis, A Venetian Family and Its Fortune, 1500–1900: The Dona and the Conservation of Their Wealth (1975); Susan Connell, The Employment of Sculptors and Stonemasons in Venice in the Fifteenth Century (1988); and Richard J. Goy, Chioggia and the Villages of the Venetian Lagoon: Studies in Urban History (1985). An intelligent study of the image and future of Venice is Gianfranco Bettin, Dove volano i leoni: fine secolo a Venezia (1991).The role of the Jewish community and the history of the Ghetto is detailed in Riccardo Calimani, The Ghetto of Venice (1987; originally published in Italian, 1985); Brian Pullan, The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice, 1550–1670 (1983, reissued 1997); and Robert C. Davis and Benjamin Ravid (eds.), The Jews of Early Modern Venice (2001).

Arts and architecture

Deborah Howard and Sarah Quill, The Architectural History of Venice, rev. and enlarged ed. (2002), provides a detailed treatment of Venetian buildings and their social context. Two more surveys are Marion Kaminski, Venice: Art & Architecture, trans. from German (2000); and Giandomenico Romanelli (ed.), Venice: Art & Architecture, 2 vol. (1997). Also useful are Michelangelo Muraro and Paolo Marton, Venetian Villas, 2nd rev. ed. (1999); Peter Lauritzen and Alexander Zielcke, Palaces of Venice (1978, reissued 1992); Douglas Lewis, The Late Baroque Churches of Venice (1979); and Richard J. Goy, Venetian Vernacular Architecture: Traditional Housing in the Venetian Lagoon (1988). Peter Lauritzen, Jorge Lewinski, and Mayotte Magnus, Venice Preserved (1986), is a concise survey of restoration work.Developments of the Renaissance period are studied in John McAndrew, Venetian Architecture of the Early Renaissance (1980); Ralph Lieberman, Renaissance Architecture in Venice, 1450–1540 (1982); and Bernhard Berenson, The Venetian Painters of the Renaissance, 3rd ed. (1897, reissued 1911). Essays on many aspects of Venetian art and politics of the Renaissance are collected in an illustrated catalog of a major exhibition, Jane Martineau and Charles Hope (eds.), The Genius of Venice, 1500–1600 (1983). Other special studies include Simon Towneley Worsthorne, Venetian Opera in the Seventeenth Century (1954, reprinted 1984); Michael Levey, Painting in Eighteenth-Century Venice, 3rd ed. (1994); and John Eglin, Venice Transfigured: The Myth of Venice in British Culture, 1660–1797 (2001).Denis E. Cosgrove John Foot

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