tundra

/tun"dreuh, toon"-/, n.

one of the vast, nearly level, treeless plains of the arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and North America.

[1835-45; < Russ túndra < Lappish; cf. Kola Lappish tundar flat elevated area]

* * *

Treeless, level or rolling ground above the taiga in polar regions (Arctic tundra) or on high mountains (alpine tundra), characterized by bare ground and rock or by such vegetation as mosses, lichens, small herbs, and low shrubs.

Animal species are limited by harsh environmental conditions. In the Arctic tundra they include lemmings, the Arctic fox, the Arctic wolf, caribou, reindeer, and musk-oxen. In the alpine tundra many animals, including mountain sheep and wildcats, descend to warmer zones during winter. The climate of alpine tundra is more moderate and has a higher amount of rainfall than does Arctic tundra. The freezing climate of the Arctic produces a layer of permanently frozen soil (permafrost). An overlying layer of soil alternates between freezing and thawing with seasonal temperature variations. Alpine tundras have a freeze-thaw layer but no permafrost. Because Arctic tundras receive extremely long periods of daylight and darkness (lasting between one and four months), biological rhythms tend to be adjusted more to variations in temperature than to variations in sunlight. Arctic tundra covers about one-tenth of the earth's surface. Alpine tundras begin above the timberline of spruce and firs. Because of the small number of plant and animal species and the fragility of the food chains in tundra regions, natural or mechanical damage to any element of the habitat affects the whole ecosystem.

* * *

▪ ecosystem

Introduction

      treeless, level or rolling ground in polar regions (Arctic tundra) or on high mountains (alpine tundra), characterized by bare ground and rock or by such vegetation as mosses, lichens, small herbs, and low shrubs.

      The plant life of tundras tends to be greenish brown in colour, and species succession takes place slowly. The foggy tundras found along coastal areas produce matted and grassy swards. Algae and fungi are found along rocky cliffs, and rosette plants grow in rock cornices and shallow gravel beds. In the drier inland tundras, spongy turf and lichen heaths develop.

      Tundra climates vary, the most severe being in the Arctic regions where temperatures fluctuate from 40 °F (4 °C) at midsummer to −25 °F (−32 °C) during the winter months. Alpine tundra has a more moderate climate, with cool summers and moderate winters (rarely falling below 0 °F [−18 °C] in winter). The freezing climate of the Arctic produces a layer of permanently frozen soil, called the permafrost, which can reach soil depths of between 300 and 1,500 feet (90 and 456 metres). An overlying layer of soil alternates between freezing and thawing with seasonal variations in temperature. The permafrost layer exists only in Arctic tundra, but both Arctic and alpine tundras have a freeze-thaw layer.

      Because Arctic tundras receive extremely long periods of daylight and darkness (lasting between one and four months), biological rhythms tend to be adjusted more to variations in temperature than to the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis.

Arctic tundra

      Arctic tundra covers about one-tenth of the total surface of the Earth. Its southern boundary meets the northernmost timberline, where boggy soils are threaded with numerous streams and lakes. Precipitation is less than 15 inches (38 cm) annually, and the sparse vegetation has a growing season between two and four months long. Most of the biological activity is confined to the freeze-thaw layer, because the softer soils of spring through autumn (thaw periods) allow animals to burrow, plant roots to extend down, and organic matter to decompose into food for microorganisms. Coastal tundras are dominated by mosses, sedges, and cotton grass. On more elevated sites, like hummocks, the soil is peatier and supports low willows, grasses, and rushes. Sunflower plants and legumes of various kinds thrive along the sandy banks of streams and lakes. Many of the plant species are perennials that flower within a few days of maturity, after the snows have begun to melt. They may germinate as soon as four to six weeks after maturing.

      Animals common in Arctic tundras are the polar bear, Arctic fox, Arctic wolf, Arctic hare, and Arctic weasel. Many of these develop a white coat during the winter months as camouflage against the snow and ice. Large herbivores such as caribou, musk-oxen, and reindeer are adapted for the cold by virtue of their bulky bodies, since the lowered ratio of body surface area to mass (i.e., to heat-producing tissue) reduces heat loss to the outside. Lemmings (lemming) are an important species in the Arctic tundra. They remain active throughout the long winters, burrowing under the snow to feed on the roots of grasses and sedges. The accumulation of manure around their burrows adds nitrogen and other nutrients to the soil, stimulating plant growth.

      Insects like mosquitoes and black flies, common to Arctic tundras, have adapted darkly coloured bodies to absorb as much heat from sunlight as possible. Many geese and other tundra birds are migratory, remaining in the tundra only long enough to nest and molt. Birds of prey (e.g., jaegers and snowy owls) and predatory animals (e.g., wolves and foxes) fluctuate in population levels according to the availability of their prey, particularly lemmings. In general, the food web in the tundra is simple and is easily subject to imbalance if a critical species fluctuates rapidly in population.

Alpine tundra

      Alpine tundras begin above the timberline, either on gentle slopes where the soil has developed large meadow areas or on windswept slopes where cushion plants dominate. Annual precipitation is higher than in Arctic tundra; blinding snowstorms, or whiteouts, obscure the landscape during the winter months, and summer rains can be heavy. The stratification of the soil and the inclination of the alpine slopes allow for good drainage, however. Alpine tundra is dominated by shrubs and herbs; willows are common along streams or where snowdrifts are deep, as in basins or on the lee side of rock ridges. In the higher mountains, where the climate is more severe than along lower slopes, only lichens and mosses can survive.

      Animal species are limited and only partially adapted to their wintry environment. Many enter into vertical migration patterns according to seasonal changes. Mountain sheep, ibex, chamois, wildcats, and many birds descend to warmer slopes to seek food in the winter. Some animals, like marmots and ground squirrels, consume large amounts of vegetation in the summer and early autumn and hibernate during the winter. Others, like rabbits, forage for what they can find in the snow; pikas and voles store large amounts of hay for winter feeding.

* * *