Sweden

/sweed"n/, n.

a kingdom in N Europe, in the E part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. 8,946,193; 173,732 sq. mi. (449,964 sq. km). Cap.: Stockholm. Swedish, Sverige.

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Sweden

Introduction Sweden -
Background: A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not participated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutrality was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long- successful economic formula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfare elements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment, rising maintenance costs, and a declining position in world markets. Indecision over the country's role in the political and economic integration of Europe delayed Sweden's entry into the EU until 1995, and waived the introduction of the euro in 1999. Geography Sweden
Location: Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, Kattegat, and Skagerrak, between Finland and Norway
Geographic coordinates: 62 00 N, 15 00 E
Map references: Europe
Area: total: 449,964 sq km water: 39,030 sq km land: 410,934 sq km
Area - comparative: slightly larger than California
Land boundaries: total: 2,205 km border countries: Finland 586 km, Norway 1,619 km
Coastline: 3,218 km
Maritime claims: continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: agreed boundaries or midlines territorial sea: 12 NM (adjustments made to return a portion of straits to high seas)
Climate: temperate in south with cold, cloudy winters and cool, partly cloudy summers; subarctic in north
Terrain: mostly flat or gently rolling lowlands; mountains in west
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m highest point: Kebnekaise 2,111 m
Natural resources: zinc, iron ore, lead, copper, silver, timber, uranium, hydropower
Land use: arable land: 6.8% permanent crops: 0% other: 93.2% (1998 est.)
Irrigated land: 1,150 sq km (1998 est.)
Natural hazards: ice floes in the surrounding waters, especially in the Gulf of Bothnia, can interfere with maritime traffic Environment - current issues: acid rain damage to soils and lakes; pollution of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea Environment - international party to: Air Pollution, Air
agreements: Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Geography - note: strategic location along Danish Straits linking Baltic and North Seas People Sweden -
Population: 8,876,744 (July 2002 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 18% (male 817,688; female 776,018) 15-64 years: 64.7% (male 2,922,095; female 2,824,770) 65 years and over: 17.3% (male 651,120; female 885,053) (2002 est.)
Population growth rate: 0.02% (2002 est.)
Birth rate: 9.81 births/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Death rate: 10.6 deaths/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Net migration rate: 0.95 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/ female total population: 0.98 male(s)/ female (2002 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 3.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2002 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 79.84 years female: 82.64 years (2002 est.) male: 77.19 years
Total fertility rate: 1.54 children born/woman (2002 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: 0.08% (1999 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/ 3,000 (1999 est.)
AIDS:
HIV/AIDS - deaths: less than 100 (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Swede(s) adjective: Swedish
Ethnic groups: indigenous population: Swedes and Finnish and Sami minorities; foreign-born or first-generation immigrants: Finns, Yugoslavs, Danes, Norwegians, Greeks, Turks
Religions: Lutheran 87%, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Baptist, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist
Languages: Swedish note: small Sami- and Finnish- speaking minorities
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 99% (1979 est.) male: NA% female: NA% Government Sweden -
Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Sweden conventional short form: Sweden local short form: Sverige local long form: Konungariket Sverige
Government type: constitutional monarchy
Capital: Stockholm Administrative divisions: 21 counties (lan, singular and plural); Blekinge, Dalarnas, Gavleborgs, Gotlands, Hallands, Jamtlands, Jonkopings, Kalmar, Kronobergs, Norrbottens, Orebro, Ostergotlands, Skane, Sodermanlands, Stockholms, Uppsala, Varmlands, Vasterbottens, Vasternorrlands, Vastmanlands, Vastra Gotalands
Independence: 6 June 1523 (Gustav VASA elected king)
National holiday: Flag Day, 6 June
Constitution: 1 January 1975
Legal system: civil law system influenced by customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: King CARL XVI GUSTAF (since 19 September 1973); Heir Apparent Princess VICTORIA Ingrid Alice Desiree, daughter of the monarch (born 14 July 1977) head of government: Prime Minister Goran PERSSON (since 21 March 1996) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the prime minister elections: the monarchy is hereditary; prime minister elected by the Parliament; election last held NA September 1998 (next to be held 20 September 2002) election results: Goran PERSSON reelected prime minister with 131 out of 349 votes
Legislative branch: unicameral Parliament or Riksdag (349 seats; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional representation basis to serve four- year terms) elections: last held 20 September 1998 (next to be held 15 September 2002) election results: percent of vote by party - Social Democrats 36.5%, Moderates 22.7%, Left Party 12%, Christian Democrats 11.8%, Center Party 5.1%, Liberal Party 4.7%, Greens 4.5%; seats by party - Social Democrats 131, Moderates 82, Left Party 43, Christian Democrats 42, Center Party 18, Liberal Party 17, Greens 16
Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Hogsta Domstolen (judges are appointed by the prime minister and the cabinet) Political parties and leaders: Center Party [Maud OLOFSSON]; Christian Democratic Party [Alf SVENSSON]; Communist Workers' Party [Rolf HAGEL]; Green Party [no formal leader but party spokespersons are Maria WETTERSTRAND and Peter ERIKSSON]; Left Party or VP (formerly Communist) [Gudrun SCHYMAN]; Liberal People's Party [Lars LEIJONBORG]; Moderate Party (conservative) [Bo LUNDGREN]; Social Democratic Party [Goran PERSSON] Political pressure groups and NA
leaders: International organization AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS,
participation: CBSS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 6, G- 9, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM (guest), NC, NEA, NIB, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMEE, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNOMIG, UNTAET, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (observer), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Jan ELIASSON consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York FAX: [1] [phone] telephone: [1] [phone] chancery: 1501 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20005-1702 Diplomatic representation from the chief of mission: Ambassador Charles
US: A. HEIMBOLD, Jr. embassy: Dag Hammarskjolds VAG 31, SE-11589 Stockholm mailing address: American Embassy Stockholm, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-5750 (pouch) telephone: [46] (08) 783 53 00 FAX: [46] (08) 661 19 64
Flag description: blue with a golden yellow cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag) Economy Sweden
Economy - overview: Aided by peace and neutrality for the whole 20th century, Sweden has achieved an enviable standard of living under a mixed system of high- tech capitalism and extensive welfare benefits. It has a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labor force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. Privately owned firms account for about 90% of industrial output, of which the engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. Agriculture accounts for only 2% of GDP and 2% of the jobs. The government's commitment to fiscal discipline resulted in a substantive budgetary surplus in 2001, but is expected to shrink somewhat in 2002, due to the global economic slowdown, tax cuts, and spending increases. The Swedish central bank (the Riksbank) is focusing on price stability with an inflation target of 2% for 2002.
GDP: purchasing power parity - $219 billion (2001 est.)
GDP - real growth rate: 1.6% (2001 est.)
GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $24,700 (2001 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 2% industry: 28.7% services: 69.3% (2000) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by lowest 10%: 3.7%
percentage share: highest 10%: 20.1% (1992) Distribution of family income - Gini 25 (1992)
index: Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.7% (2001 est.)
Labor force: 4.4 million (2000 est.) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 2%, industry 24%, services 74% (2000 est.)
Unemployment rate: 3.9% (2001 est.)
Budget: revenues: $119 billion expenditures: $110 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2001 est.)
Industries: iron and steel, precision equipment (bearings, radio and telephone parts, armaments), wood pulp and paper products, processed foods, motor vehicles Industrial production growth rate: 4.5% (2001 est.) Electricity - production: 144.621 billion kWh (2000) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 6.06% hydro: 53.81% other: 2.72% (2000) nuclear: 37.41% Electricity - consumption: 139.176 billion kWh (2000)
Electricity - exports: 13.628 billion kWh (2000)
Electricity - imports: 18.306 billion kWh (2000)
Agriculture - products: barley, wheat, sugar beets; meat, milk
Exports: $96 billion (f.o.b., 2001 est.)
Exports - commodities: machinery 35%, motor vehicles, paper products, pulp and wood, iron and steel products, chemicals
Exports - partners: EU 53.6% (Germany 10.6%, UK 9.1%, Denmark 5.3%, France 5.1%), US 9.5%, Norway 7.5% (2000)
Imports: $89.2 billion (f.o.b., 2001 est.)
Imports - commodities: machinery, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel; foodstuffs, clothing
Imports - partners: EU 60.3% (Germany 16.3%, UK 8.8%, Denmark 6.7%, France 5.6%), Norway 8.2%, US 6.7% (2000)
Debt - external: $66.5 billion (1994)
Economic aid - donor: ODA, $1.7 billion (1997)
Currency: Swedish krona (SEK)
Currency code: SEK
Exchange rates: Swedish kronor per US dollar - 10.4381 (January 2002), 10.3291 (2001), 9.1622 (2000), 8.2624 (1999), 7.9499 (1998), 7.6349 (1997)
Fiscal year: calendar year Communications Sweden - Telephones - main lines in use: 6.017 million (December 1998) Telephones - mobile cellular: 3.835 million (October 1998)
Telephone system: general assessment: excellent domestic and international facilities; automatic system domestic: coaxial and multiconductor cables carry most of the voice traffic; parallel microwave radio relay systems carry some additional telephone channels international: 5 submarine coaxial cables; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, and 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note - Sweden shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, and Norway) Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 265, shortwave 1 (1998)
Radios: 8.25 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 169 (plus 1,299 repeaters) (1995)
Televisions: 4.6 million (1997)
Internet country code: .se Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 29 (2000)
Internet users: 5.64 million (2000) Transportation Sweden -
Railways: total: 12,821 km standard gauge: 12,600 km 1.435- m gauge (7,918 km electrified) narrow gauge: 221 km 0.891-m gauge (2001)
Highways: total: 210,760 km paved: 162,707 km (including 1,428 km of expressways) unpaved: 48,053 km (1999)
Waterways: 2,052 km note: navigable to small steamers and barges
Pipelines: natural gas 84 km
Ports and harbors: Gavle, Goteborg, Halmstad, Helsingborg, Hudiksvall, Kalmar, Karlshamn, Malmo, Solvesborg, Stockholm, Sundsvall
Merchant marine: total: 174 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,255,344 GRT/1,609,844 DWT note: includes some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Denmark 8, Finland 8, Germany 3, Italy 3, Japan 2, Norway 7 (2002 est.) ships by type: bulk 5, cargo 37, chemical tanker 33, combination ore/ oil 4, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 27, railcar carrier 1, roll on/roll off 38, short-sea passenger 4, specialized tanker 6, vehicle carrier 18
Airports: 255 (2001) Airports - with paved runways: total: 147 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 12 914 to 1,523 m: 27 under 914 m: 25 (2001) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 80 Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 108 914 to 1,523 m: 6 under 914 m: 102 (2001)
Heliports: 1 (2001) Military Sweden -
Military branches: Army, Royal Navy (including Coast Artillery and Naval Helicopter Service), Air Force Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age (2002 est.) Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,060,205 (2002 est.) Military manpower - fit for military males age 15-49: 1,800,991 (2002
service: est.) Military manpower - reaching military males: 51,506 (2002 est.)
age annually: Military expenditures - dollar $4,395.1 million (FY01)
figure: Military expenditures - percent of 2.1% (FY01)
GDP: Transnational Issues Sweden - Disputes - international: none

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officially Kingdom of Sweden

Country, located on the Scandinavian Peninsula, northern Europe.

Area: 173,732 sq mi (449,964 sq km). Population (2002 est.): 8,924,000. Capital: Stockholm. The population is largely homogeneous, although there are Finnish and Sami minorities and 10% of the inhabitants are immigrants or their descendents. Language: Swedish (official). Religions: Church of Sweden (Lutheran), Islam, Roman Catholicism, Pentacostalism. Currency: Swedish krona. Sweden has three traditional regions. Mountainous Norrland covers about three-fifths of the country and has vast forests and large ore deposits. Svealand has undulating glacial ridges and contains most of the country's 90,000 lakes. Götaland comprises the stony Småland highlands and the rich Skåne plains. About 15% of Sweden lies north of the Arctic Circle. The economy is largely based on services, heavy industries, and international trade. Sweden has large deposits of iron ore; industries include mining, lumbering, steel manufacturing, and tourism. Important agricultural products include grains, sugar beets, potatoes, and livestock. One of the world's richest countries, Sweden is known for its comprehensive social welfare system. Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with one legislative house; its chief of state is the king, and the head of government is the prime minister. The first inhabitants were apparently hunters who crossed a land bridge from Europe с 12,000 BC. During the Viking era (9th–10th centuries AD), the Swedes controlled river trade in eastern Europe between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea; they also raided western European lands. Sweden was loosely united and Christianized in the 11th–12th centuries. It conquered the Finns in the 12th century, and in the 14th century it united with Norway and Denmark under a single monarchy. Sweden broke away in 1523 under Gustav I Vasa. In the 17th century it emerged as a great European power in the Baltic region, but its dominance declined after its defeat in the Second Northern War (1700–21). It became a constitutional monarchy in 1809 and united with Norway in 1815; it acknowledged Norwegian independence in 1905. Sweden maintained its neutrality during both World Wars. It was a charter member of the UN but abstained from membership in NATO and the European Union until the 1990s. A new constitution drafted in 1975 reduced the monarch's powers to those of a ceremonial head of state. In 1997 Sweden began the controversial shutdown of its nuclear power industry. By the early 21st century it had emerged as a European centre of telecommunications and information technology.

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▪ 2009

Area:

450,295 sq km (173,860 sq mi)

Population

(2008 est.): 9,214,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt

      In 2008 Sweden began the year with a period of high and sustained economic growth but later experienced a marked slowdown in line with the global economic and financial downturn. The decline could be seen over the whole economy, with a sharply lower stock market, falling housing prices, diminishing pension funds, rising unemployment, and a weakening currency. In the period 2004–07 GDP on average had grown more than 3% annually—well above the European average—but Finance Minister Anders Borg cut the growth forecasts to a meagre 1% for 2008. Predictions pointed toward even lower future growth, with the central bank assuming zero growth for 2009.

      The tougher times ahead could also be perceived in the rising number of Swedes who lost their jobs during the autumn. It came as a shock for the entire country when automobile manufacturer Volvo (a subsidiary of the American Ford group) in October notified 3,300 blue- and white-collar workers that their jobs were being eliminated. Unemployment in Sweden reached 6%, and forecasters such as the trade union confederation (LO) expected the figure to rise to 7–8% in the coming years.

      The global financial crisis forced the Swedish government in October to present a rescue package for the banking system amounting to no less than 1.5 trillion kronor (about $200 billion). The package was designed to guarantee bank borrowing and to create a government fund to take direct stakes in the banks. Some of the banks, including Swedbank and SEB, were singled out as potential recipients of state aid because of their large exposure to loans in the Baltic states, where credit losses were expected to mount. All four major Swedish banks showed surprisingly good profits in their reports for the first nine months of 2008, however, and it was unclear how much—if any—public money would be spent in the end.

      Housing prices fell 10–20% in 2008, depending on location and price, and further declines were widely expected. The Swedish stock market plunged some 40%, a historically high figure on top of the 7% slide in 2007. These developments made millions of Swedes feel the economic pain, as more than 50% of Swedish households owned their homes, and 75% of the population owned shares either directly or through mutual funds. Almost all pension schemes—state-sponsored and private—would also be affected by the financial downturn.

      The centre-right coalition government under Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt continued to fall in the polls, receiving 15–20% less support than its political opposition—the Swedish Social Democratic Party (SAP), with its allies in the Green Party (MP) and the Left Party (VP). According to one poll published in the autumn, more than 60% of the electorate anticipated a new government in the next election, due in 2010. SAP leader Mona Sahlin declared a willingness to form a coalition government with the MP and to include the VP if they could agree on economic policies. This was the first time in more than 50 years that a social democratic leader had favoured the idea of a coalition government.

      The government tried to rally its supporters, launching a public relations campaign that highlighted its legislative program and showing a desire to fortify the four-party coalition. The government pursued its reforms of the tax system, cutting both income and corporate taxes. Reinfeldt, who had been criticized for being too absent from the public forum, spent most of his time focusing on the domestic political arena. The government's handling of the financial crisis won it public approval, and the gap in the polls narrowed to about 5% at the end of the year. Reinfeldt was expected to be more visible in European politics in the second half of 2009 after Sweden assumed the rotating presidency of the EU.

Martin Haag

▪ 2008

Area:

450,295 sq km (173,860 sq mi)

Population

(2007 est.): 9,142,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt

      The political climate in Swedish public life changed considerably in 2007 following the seizure of a majority in the Riksdag (parliament) by the four-party centre-right coalition in the September 2006 general election. Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt gave his cabinet ministers more visible responsibilities than had his predecessor, Göran Persson, while at the same time creating the strongest Finance Ministry since the legendary era of former finance minister Gunnar Strang, who presided over the expansion of the Swedish welfare state for more than two decades (1955–76).

      From the beginning, one aim of the Reinfeldt government was to reform the social service network provided by the state without dismantling it entirely. The main objective was to put more people to work, by reducing both taxes and unemployment benefits. This was something that the government was able to accomplish; in fact, by year's end this action was its main political achievement.

      The Swedish economy during Reinfeldt's first year in office continued to grow at roughly the same level as the previous year—at or slightly less than 4%. Economic development under Persson's Social Democrats was labeled “jobless growth,” but after their departure from power, there was a rapid drop in the percentage of unemployed (from 4.9% in September 2006 to 4.2% a year later) and a sizable increase in the active workforce (which added 131,000 more jobs, compared with 93,000 jobs in Persson's last year), although there was also a drop in productivity growth. Combined with generous wage agreements in the private sector, however, this situation was expected to have inflationary effects in the years to come. Lower unemployment rates had been credited in part to reductions in security benefits, such as health insurance. As a result of higher state-enforced fees to union-administered unemployment funds, these funds lost a total of 320,000 members in the course of the first eight months of 2007.

      Although the four-party alliance won a clear mandate in the 2006 elections, its poll ratings immediately deteriorated, settling at least 10 percentage points behind those of the parliamentary opposition. This reinforced a general assumption that voters in 2006 were wanting to get rid of an arrogant leadership rather than favouring the alliance's proposed cuts to welfare programs. Two ministerial departures immediately after the government was formed—and an embarrassing financial affair that forced the departure of Reinfeldt's own state secretary in October—gave the impression of an administration lacking in political experience and the ability to govern effectively. The Reinfeldt government was especially embarrassed by the resignation in September of Defense Minister Mikael Odenberg, who had long supported the conservatives as a leading parliamentarian. He left office over the severe cuts in the long-term budget, which would affect Sweden's self-defense capability. Plans to sell state-owned stakes in large public companies to private parties, which were not popular among the voters, were delayed owing to mismanagement at Carnegie, one of the investment banks commissioned to handle the sales. The Carnegie scandal was caused by proprietary traders' alleged attempts to overvalue various derivative instruments in their portfolio by manipulating prices, which triggered an extraordinary fine of 50 million kronor (about $7.7 million) against the bank by the Financial Supervisory Authority.

      On average, Swedish households were better off than before, although income differentials widened both within and between groups and professions. The Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations (SACO), the chief organization for well-educated professionals, enlarged its constituent memberships, in sharp contrast to groups that represented blue- and white-collar workers. SACO also showed a female majority for the first time. The total value of companies listed on Sweden's OMX stock exchange diminished somewhat during 2007, a correction after four consecutive years of increasing stock prices. Property prices also showed signs of weakening.

Anders Björnsson

▪ 2007

Area:

450,295 sq km (173,860 sq mi)

Population

(2006 est.): 9,082,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Ministers Göran Persson and, from October 6, Fredrik Reinfeldt

 The general elections on Sept. 17, 2006, ended 12 years of uninterrupted socialist rule in Sweden. The four-party alliance that set up the new centre-right government under Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt captured 178 of the 349 seats in the Riksdag (parliament). For the first time in 25 years, a Swedish government could rely on a parliamentary majority of its own.

      Göran Persson was forced to resign both as prime minister and as Social Democratic Party (SDP) chairman. Persson had stubbornly refused to accept the claim of the SDP's allied parties to share formal governmental responsibilities. During the election campaign, that was a considerable disadvantage to the three parties in power, since their centre-right critics were able to rally around a common political platform for the first time in modern Swedish history. Although the SDP took the most seats (130), it achieved less than 35% of the vote, the worst outcome for the party since the introduction of universal suffrage in 1921. Reinfeldt, leader of the conservative Moderate Party since 2003, increased his party's electoral share from 15% to slightly over 26%, an unprecedented gain in Swedish political campaigning.

      Persson and the SDP were hurt by a series of political scandals, some of them emanating from alleged mismanagement after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, in which nearly 550 Swedish tourists were killed and some 1,500 injured. After harsh criticism from an official commission and the media, Persson's foreign minister and his closest associate in the cabinet office both had to give up their positions in the half year before the elections. On the other hand, Reinfeldt lost two of his ministers within 10 days after their appointment owing to irregularities in their private finances.

      Reinfeldt's government took over at a time when the annual economic growth rate of more than 4% was excellent by European standards. Public and government finances were balanced, and house prices were steadily rising. A strict monetary regime had brought inflation down to insignificance; an undervalued krona did allow for comfortable profits in export-oriented industries. Higher dividends and distribution of cash to shareholders fueled a stock market that had been rising for three years in a row. In spite of this rapid growth and increased productivity, few new jobs had been created, while the degree of open or hidden unemployment (roughly 8% of the workforce) and the number of people on permanent sick leave did not show any sign of decreasing. The only remedy to that problem offered by the Social Democrats was investment in higher education and research. By surrendering the traditionally socialist trump card of full employment, the SDP became a target for attacks from political adversaries and created insecurity among blue- and white-collar trade unions, which proved decisive in a country where organized labour remained a central political force.

      The new four-party coalition came to power with modest administrative experience and had not committed to any fundamental reshaping of the Swedish welfare model. Reinfeldt's government made some early proposals to the Riksdag, including reductions in the employers' tax on youth labour and in unemployment benefits, tax cuts for low-paid wage earners, and the sale of government stakes in public companies.

Anders Björnsson

▪ 2006

Area:

450,295 sq km (173,860 sq mi)

Population

(2005 est.): 9,024,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Göran Persson

      Sweden began 2005 still reeling from the devastating loss of life caused by the Indian Ocean tsunami that struck in late December 2004. Some 20,000 Swedes were vacationing in Thailand when the tsunami hit, and early estimates indicated that the Swedish death toll from the disaster could top 3,000. At midyear the number of Swedes believed killed or missing in the tsunami stood at 544, with 428 deaths confirmed.

      The Social Democratic government of Prime Minister Göran Persson faced withering public criticism of its handling of the crisis. In particular, concerns were raised over the apparent sluggishness of the government's response, with Persson and Foreign Minister Laila Freivalds singled out for not having interrupted their vacations sooner. In the immediate aftermath of the disaster, Persson's approval ratings sank to 32%. A final report by the Swedish commission set up to evaluate the government's tsunami response concluded that Persson “bears the overall responsibility for the shortcomings” of the response and recommended the creation of a “crisis-management unit” in the prime minister's office. Persson resisted calls that he resign and further indicated that he had no plans to dismiss anyone in his administration. Late in the year the government announced its intention to become a key donor to a UN trust fund to support the creation of a tsunami early-warning system for the Indian Ocean.

      As Sweden's immigrant population continued to swell (by 2005 more than one million of the country's nine million inhabitants were foreign-born), a new report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development claimed that immigrants were being forced to live in areas where jobs were scarce and where they would therefore likely become dependent on welfare. There were also concerns over the high number of asylum seekers who had gone into hiding in the country after having their applications for resident permits rejected. In November the Riksdag (parliament) voted in favour of granting thousands of rejected applicants an opportunity to resubmit their petitions for legal status.

      Debate also focused on Sweden's nuclear-energy policy, and some environmentalists questioned the industry's plan to store massive amounts of spent nuclear fuel in a permanent repository some 500 m (1,640 ft) underground. At the same time, many in Sweden had begun to reevaluate the nuclear-phaseout plan altogether, especially in light of growing concerns over global warming and fears that the phaseout could lead to increased reliance on coal and gas imports. Though an opinion poll taken in March suggested that more than 80% of Swedes wanted to maintain or even increase nuclear power, the Barsebäck 2 reactor was closed on schedule at the end of May.

      On the economic front, export growth ground to a virtual halt in the first quarter of the year. By the end of 2005, total exports of goods had risen by just 4.2%, a sharp decline from the robust 10.5% growth witnessed a year earlier. GDP growth sank to 2.4% for the year, down from 3.6% in 2004. The slowdown led to an interest-rate cut of half a percentage point at midyear. By far the most troubling economic news, however, was a jump in the unemployment rate from 5.5% in 2004 to 7.1% by June 2005. In response, the government, which had made job creation one of its key priorities, approved an ambitious two-year employment package that was set to go into effect on Jan. 1, 2006.

      In the general elections scheduled for Sept. 17, 2006, the Social Democrats and their allies were expected to face a stiff challenge from an opposition headed by Fredrik Reinfeldt, leader of the conservative Moderate Party.

Sherman Hollar

▪ 2005

Area:

450,295 sq km (173,860 sq mi)

Population

(2004 est.): 8,991,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Göran Persson

      The Swedish economy performed well in 2004, but the Social Democratic government under Prime Minister Göran Persson failed to reap the political benefits as unemployment and problems in public services dominated the news.

      Boosted by strong exports, the country's economy was expected to have grown by 3.5% in 2004. Although the strong U.S. dollar might slow Swedish exports in 2005, tax cuts and increased public spending were expected to stimulate domestic demand, and economic growth was projected to remain above 3%.

      Swedish voters had elected to stay outside the euro zone in a national referendum in 2003, but interest rates continued to fall in 2004, reaching 2% in April in line with those set by the European Central Bank. Unlike many of its European Union colleagues, Sweden's public finances remained largely in balance. While Swedish industry continued to be competitive in sectors ranging from telecommunications to automotive, however, there were few new jobs. Open unemployment was expected to reach 5.6% of the workforce, well above the government's 4% target.

      Away from the economy, the country still struggled to come to terms with the murder of Anna Lindh, the country's foreign minister who was stabbed to death on a private shopping trip in central Stockholm in September 2003. Mijailo Mijailovic, a 25-year-old Swede of Serbian parentage, was convicted in March 2004 of the murder of Lindh, who had been heavily tipped to be the country's next prime minister. At Mijailovic's trial most of the details of the killing were undisputed, but Swedes were left with little idea of the motive for the attack. The main point of contention at the trial was whether Mijailovic had been seriously mentally ill at the time of the attack and therefore should be sentenced to psychiatric care rather than jail. Initially the court sentenced him to life imprisonment, but he was later placed under psychiatric care. After a legal battle, the Supreme Court ruled in December that Mijailovic would serve his life sentence in jail.

      It had been thought that Persson might step down in 2004, but with his obvious successor gone, he had little choice but to continue as leader of the Social Democrats. Still stung from the political defeat he had suffered in the euro referendum, Persson seemed to lack enthusiasm for political debate in the early part of the year. The Social Democrats' poor showing in the European Parliamentary election in June, his own health problems, and a bruising row over the nomination of the country's European commissioner did little to improve the prime minister's temper.

      In the autumn, after a long summer break and a hip operation, Persson returned to the political fray with renewed vigour, reshuffled his government, and pledged to remain party leader through the next general election in 2006. The prime minister would have his work cut out, however, if the Social Democrats were to secure a fourth consecutive election victory. The opposition, headed by Fredrik Reinfeldt, the leader of the conservative Moderate Party, spent 2004 moving toward the political centre ground, and by December it had been rewarded with a steady lead in the opinion polls. Reinfeldt had toned down promises of large-scale tax cuts, instead insisting that a nonsocialist government would better run public services such as health and education.

      Sweden was severely affected by the December tsunami disaster in Southeast Asia. A large number of Swedes were vacationing in the area, and it was feared that the Swedish death toll could reach 1,000. (See Disasters: Sidebar (Deadliest Tsunami ).)

Nicholas George

▪ 2004

Area:

449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi)

Population

(2003 est.): 8,958,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Göran Persson

      One week in September defined 2003 for most Swedes. Foreign Minister Anna Lindh, 46, was murdered only days before a referendum in which the country decisively rejected membership of the euro, the single European currency. Lindh, who had been a fervent campaigner for the euro, was attacked on September 10 while on a private shopping trip to a department store in central Stockholm. She was stabbed repeatedly and died the following day of her injuries. Lindh, a popular politician who managed to combine outspoken views with charm, was seen as the natural successor to Social Democratic Prime Minister Göran Persson. Her murder reminded Swedes of the assassination of former prime minister Olof Palme, who was shot dead only a few streets away in 1986. Neither politician had had any bodyguards at the time they were attacked. The latest killing shocked a nation that had continued to cherish its open democracy, which allowed citizens easy access to their leaders.

      Lindh's death led to an outpouring of public grief in the traditionally restrained country and brought to a halt all campaigning in the euro referendum, which took place three days later. At year's end a case was being prepared against a Swedish-born Serb with a history of mental instability and violence. Prosecutors believed that there was no political motive in the attack, in connection with either the euro referendum or other European issues.

      Despite fears that the vote would be influenced by a sympathy vote for Lindh, Swedes voted by an overwhelming majority of 56% to 42% to stay outside the euro zone. The size of the defeat was surprising, considering that the “yes” side had the backing of the Social Democratic government, the largest opposition parties, and a majority of the Riksdag (parliament), as well as the financial resources of the business community. Supporters of the euro said that membership would make trade easier, increase the pace of economic growth, and give the country more influence in the European Union. Moreover, unlike the U.K. and Denmark, the other two EU members outside the euro zone, Sweden did not formally have the right to opt out of the currency.

      Those against adopting the euro said it would mean a loss of sovereignty and was a step toward a federal Europe. They claimed that it would threaten the Swedish economic model of high taxes and generous welfare spending. Persson campaigned vigorously for a “yes,” but with key members of his own cabinet openly opposed to membership and the Swedish economy outperforming the euro zone, he struggled to convince a skeptical population. The decisive majority against meant that Sweden would be unlikely to vote again on the issue for several years.

      Despite the scale of Persson's defeat and his close association with the campaign, there were few calls for his resignation. Lindh's death deprived him of an obvious successor, and in the wake of her murder, the emphasis was on political stability.

      In 2004 Persson would have to cope with the consequences of standing outside the euro and with a reinvigorated opposition. The Moderates, the main conservative party, appointed 38-year-old Fredrik Reinfeldt its new leader and saw a surge in its popularity. Reinfeldt was expected to take the Moderates toward the political centre.

      Outside politics the news was dominated by a string of scandals in both the public and the private sector. The most spectacular was at Skandia, the financial services group, which in 2000 was Sweden's second most valuable company. Revelations of poor corporate governance, management perks, and huge bonus payments led to criminal investigations and the dismissal of senior executives. The repercussions of the scandal would continue to preoccupy the nation in 2004 as the government and business community attempted to restore investors' and consumers' confidence in their political and business leadership.

Nicholas George

▪ 2003

Area:

449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi)

Population

(2002 est.): 8,925,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Göran Persson

      The centre-left Social Democratic Party (SDP), under the leadership of Prime Minister Göran Persson, was returned to power in the 2002 general election but faced the challenge of convincing Swedes that they should abandon the krona and adopt the single European currency, the euro. The results of the September election were seen as a foregone conclusion. Against a backdrop of low unemployment and with tax cuts and reduced fees for key public services boosting household consumption, the SDP was able to portray itself as the party of economic competence. Persson's unequivocal support of the U.S. and its “war on terrorism” in the aftermath of the attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, also hit a chord with voters. In the weeks before the vote, however, opinion polls indicated that the contest was much closer than had been predicted. Instead of focusing on the upbeat economic news, voters turned their attention to the problems of integrating the country's sizable immigrant community. Sweden had by far the largest number of immigrants in the Nordic region, with 22% of the population born outside the country or with a parent born abroad. (See Australia: Special Report (Strangers at the Gates: The Immigration Backlash ).)

      Unlike neighbouring Denmark and Norway, Sweden had no credible populist or anti-immigrant party. Instead, the Liberal Party tapped into the unease over immigration after its leader, Lars Leijonborg, demanded that immigrants pass a Swedish-language test before they became citizens. In the end the Liberal Party almost tripled its support from the 1998 election, gaining over 13% of the vote. The Liberal Party's success came largely at the expense of its opposition partner, the conservative Moderate Party, which lost support following a lacklustre campaign in which its promises to lower taxes and improve public services failed to convince voters. The Social Democrats won just under 40% of the vote, and after some tough negotiations, Persson reached an agreement with the Left and Green parties to ensure that his minority government would have a stable parliamentary majority. In power for all but 9 of the previous 70 years, the SDP even managed to regain control of the capital, Stockholm.

      Persson would not be able to rely on his allies for support over the single-currency issue, however. Both the Left and the Green parties opposed membership, fearing that the country's cherished welfare state and high employment would have to be sacrificed inside the euro zone. Supporters of membership contended that Sweden would benefit from lower interest rates and cheaper prices if the krona was abandoned. Although the major nonsocialist opposition parties as well as business organizations and key labour unions would campaign hard for the “yes” side, opinion was divided within the SDP itself, and the eventual vote, set for Sept. 14, 2003, was likely to be tight.

      Away from politics, the excesses of the Internet and telecommunications investment bubbles continued to batter the economy. The most high-profile victim, Ericsson, the world's largest producer of wireless telecom systems, was forced to fire thousands of staff and raise about $3 billion from its shareholders. The consumer, rather than industry, appeared to be keeping the economy going. Estimated gross domestic product growth was forecast at about 2% for 2003.

Nicholas George

▪ 2002

Area:

449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi)

Population

(2001 est.): 8,888,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Göran Persson

      The first six months of 2001 were dominated by Sweden's role as president of the European Union (EU), and while the country was criticized for lacking a grand vision for its time in charge, it was praised for the efficiency with which it ran the presidency.

      For the Swedes the most obvious achievement was the injection of fresh impetus to the process of EU enlargement. At the end of the Göteborg summit in June, Prime Minister Göran Persson said he hoped the most advanced candidates would complete entry negotiations by the end of 2002 with the objective of participating in the 2004 European Parliamentary elections.

      Sweden's term as president also marked some bold foreign initiatives for the EU. With the U.S. under Pres. George W. Bush appearing to disengage from some of the world's most intractable political disputes, it was left to Persson to visit the Middle East and North Korea. The EU also took the lead in attempting to prevent an all-out war in Macedonia.

      For all the successes, most Swedes would remember the presidency not for the long line of foreign dignitaries who visited the country but for the bloody riots that marred the Göteborg summit as groups of antiglobalization protesters and police battled in the streets of the city.

      Domestic politics got under way in the second half of the year but were overshadowed by the September 11 terrorist attacks in the U.S. Persson wholeheartedly supported the U.S.-led campaign against terrorism and the bombing in Afghanistan, a position that prompted sharp criticism from some members of his Social Democratic Labour Party (SAP).

      Despite the dispute, Persson remained unchallenged as party leader and was set to take the SAP into the September 2002 general election. In opinion polls the SAP claimed about 35% of the support, with its ally the Left Party at around 12–13%. The environmental Green Party, which the SAP also relied upon for its legislative majority, might struggle to return to the Riksdag (parliament) after the election. If this happened, or if support for the Left and the SAP slipped further, then the way would be open for a nonsocialist four-party coalition to take power, headed by the conservative Moderate Party leader Bo Lundgren.

      Economically, the bursting of the information technology bubble had marked implications for Sweden. Ericsson, the world's largest producer of mobile telecommunications equipment, shed thousands of jobs, as did the country's once fast-expanding Internet consulting firms and dot-com start-ups.

      Gross domestic product growth of 3.6% in 2000 was expected to have fallen to around 1.5% in 2001, and only a minor recovery was forecast for 2002. The government was hoping that tax cuts, subsidies on child-care expenses, and wage increases would boost consumer confidence with real disposable income to increase by 5.4%. Exports were also expected to pick up in 2002, helped by the weakness of the Swedish krona, which hit record lows against both the dollar and the euro in 2001.

      For the time being, Sweden had decided to remain outside the European single currency, and Persson was eager to ensure that membership did not become an issue in the general election. At the earliest a referendum on the matter could be held after the election, but there was little obvious enthusiasm for the monetary project among the general public.

Nicholas George

▪ 2001

Area:

449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi)

Population

(2000 est.): 8,864,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Göran Persson

      In 2000 a strong economy, falling unemployment, and the impact of the Internet appeared to breathe new life into the “Swedish model” of a welfare society, one that had seemed dead and buried during the deep recession of the early 1990s. With economic growth forecast at about 4%, inflation among the lowest in Europe, and the unemployment rate down to 4% of the workforce, the country bore little resemblance to the crisis-ridden state of less than 10 years ago. Talk turned from dismantling the system of high taxation and generous social benefits to a discussion of how these elements could be adapted to a global economy in which both capital and labour could move more freely.

      Though the transformation in Sweden's economic health was helped by the general worldwide economic upturn—which boosted the strong export sector—there were also notable domestic factors, such as the state budget, which had slumped to a deficit of over 12% of gross domestic product in 1993 but now boasted a healthy surplus following some significant spending cuts. The ruling Social Democratic Labour Party (SAP), therefore, began paying back the national debt as well as introducing modest tax cuts.

      Just as important was Sweden's embrace of new technology; the country had some of the world's highest levels of Internet and mobile-phone usage. The widespread understanding of the capabilities of these two technologies created a new breed of entrepreneurs, many of whom had been behind some of Europe's high-profile Internet companies. The young and flamboyant Internet entrepreneurs who had dominated the news headlines early in the year, however, struggled for survival along with many new companies after capital dried up in the summer.

      Another long-term factor in Sweden's economic turnaround was telecommunications equipment manufacturer Ericsson; its extensive presence in Stockholm helped transform the capital into one of Europe's hubs of information technology (IT) research. The rapid rise of the Stockholm stock market early in the year attracted many to buying equities in IT and telecom stocks. In June more than 11% of the population bought shares in the state-owned telecom operator Telia; it was the largest privatization ever in the Nordic region. Following the stock market decline in the second half of the year, however, many Swedes sustained substantial losses.

      The SAP, however, failed to capitalize on the economic boom. Opinion polls showed the party struggling to return to its postelection 36% approval level. Instead, the smaller Left Party, an SAP ally, picked up support with its program of increased public spending and opposition to Swedish membership in the European single currency.

      Although a member of the European Union (EU), Sweden stayed outside the euro zone. The government promised a referendum on the issue, but public opinion was so firmly against the move that any such vote seemed distant. When Sweden assumed the rotating presidency of the EU for the first time in 2001, Prime Minister Göran Persson would have to show his enthusiasm for the EU without alienating domestic opinion; many were suspicious of EU institutions and fearful of the erosion of national sovereignty.

      Persson would not be the only Swede with a difficult leadership job in 2001. The appointment in October of Sven-Göran Eriksson, the first non-English manager of the troubled England association football (soccer) team, was sure to provide sports fans in this Scandinavian country with plenty to read about.

Nicholas George

▪ 2000

Area:

449,969 sq km (173,734 sq mi)

Population

(1999 est.): 8,859,000

Capital:

Stockholm

Chief of state:

King Carl XVI Gustaf

Head of government:

Prime Minister Göran Persson

      For the ruling Social Democratic Labour Party (SAP) government, the strength of the Swedish economy in 1999 was seen as vindicating the tough fiscal measures the party had pursued since returning to power in 1994. Faced then with a spiraling deficit in public finances, high unemployment, and financial institutions still reeling from a banking crisis, the government was forced to reduce cherished welfare spending, raise taxes, and cut jobs in the public sector.

      Gross domestic product (GDP) growth for 1999 was estimated at about 3.6%, well above the European average, and was forecast to rise to 3.8% in 2000. At the same time, inflation remained subdued. Crucially for the minority government, which relied on the smaller Left and Green parties for its parliamentary majority, economic growth was at last having an impact on the labour market. The official unemployment figure—which excluded the tens of thousands of people on government-funded work and training schemes—fell to 5.2% in October.

      Perhaps the most stunning transformation was in government finances. Rather than an annual budget deficit that reached 12.3% of GDP in the early 1990s, government finances promised a healthy surplus in 1999, giving room for income tax cuts in 2000.

      These tax cuts, or at least their timing, prompted one of the biggest political surprises of the year when in April the respected finance minister, Erik Asbrink, resigned only two days before the spring budget. Asbrink had argued that the government should wait with tax cuts, only to see Prime Minister Göran Persson contradict him on television. Asbrink complained that once again his authority had been undermined by the prime minister. Persson rode out the political storm but struggled to win over voters or capitalize on the economic recovery. According to opinion polls late in the year, support for the SAP remained slightly below the 36.4% it had achieved in the 1998 general election, a result that itself was the party's worst in 70 years. In part Persson was still paying for the unpopularity of earlier austerity measures, which hit many traditional SAP supporters hardest. The party now hoped tax cuts, better job prospects, and the surge in consumer spending would generate the “feel good” factor in time for the 2002 general election.

      Disaffection with the government was partly the reason the SAP gained only 26.1% of the vote in the European Parliamentary elections in June, although the result also reflected the strong stream of skepticism in Sweden toward the European Union. This lack of enthusiasm for the EU, and in particular for Swedish participation in the European single currency, had so far kept the country outside the Eurozone. In November Persson stated that in the long term the country could not stay outside, the closest the prime minister had yet come to recommending membership in the single currency. A referendum on the issue seemed unlikely, however, until the leadership could be sure of winning a “yes” vote, which was still far from certain.

      The year also saw a change in the leadership of the main opposition party, the conservative Moderate Coalition Party, with former prime minister and UN envoy to the Balkans Carl Bildt succeeded by Bo Lundgren, a former taxation minister.

      The increasingly violent activities of neo-Nazi groups continued to shock the nation. Neo-Nazi activists were implicated in the shooting of two policemen during a bank robbery, the murder of a labour unionist, and the car bombing of a journalist. The numbers of those involved in extreme right-wing groups remained small, but the threat they posed to Sweden's liberal society was perhaps for the first time being taken seriously.

Nicholas George

▪ 1999

      Area: 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi)

      Population (1998 est.): 8,860,000

      Capital: Stockholm

      Chief of state: King Carl XVI Gustaf

      Head of government: Prime Minister Göran Persson

      The highlight of a busy political year in 1998 was the general election in September, in which the ruling Social Democrats slumped to their worst result in 70 years—but still clung to power. Prime Minister Göran Persson's parliamentary minority was sharply reduced by voters angry at persistently high unemployment and cuts in Sweden's cherished welfare system. The Social Democrats saw their number of seats fall from 161 to 131 in the 349-member Riksdag (parliament).

      Elsewhere, this might have precipitated a change of government. Persson, however, was able to stay in office for two reasons. First, the Social Democrats, though weakened, remained unchallenged as the largest party. This was chiefly due to the failure of the main opposition Moderate Coalition Party to capitalize on the government's unpopularity. Led by Carl Bildt, the former peace envoy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Moderates added just two seats to their tally of 80 from the previous election in 1994. Also, Persson shored up his power base by agreeing immediately after the election to an informal alliance with two left-wing parties, the former communist Left Party and the Greens. The Social Democrats had spent the previous four years in an ad hoc alliance with the rurally based Centre Party, which also fared poorly in the election.

      Fears of a possible leftward lurch in government policy caused brief jitters on financial markets. Investors were subsequently mollified by assurances from Persson and his finance minister, Erik Asbrink, that the government would not be pressured into loosening fiscal policy.

      Two weeks after the election, Persson unveiled one of the most sweeping Cabinet reshuffles in Swedish history, with eight ministers leaving their posts. Among the newcomers was Mona Sahlin, the former deputy prime minister, who in 1995 had been poised to become the party's new leader before she was forced to resign over her private use of a government credit card. Sahlin's political rehabilitation was ensured by her appointment as a junior minister in a new "superministry" responsible for promoting economic growth.

      Outside the political arena, the year got off to a bright start with Stockholm starting a 12-month stint as Cultural Capital of Europe. In February the business world came under the microscope after controversy arose over high pay awards to top corporate executives. The issue was ignited when Stora, a leading forestry company, sacked its chief executive but not before granting him a SKr 64 million severance package (SKr 1 = about U.S. $0.13). The size of the payment, initially concealed from company stockholders, prompted the resignation of Stora's chairman and government demands for companies to regulate executive pay more rigorously.

      In October attention shifted to the announcement of proposals for far-reaching cutbacks in Sweden's military spending. Defense department officials, facing intense political pressure to curb expenditures, presented a policy document aimed at effectively freezing defense spending at its year-2000 level for the first 10 years of the next millennium. Among a host of other measures was a reduction in the universal conscription service and the mothballing of aging military hardware. Reflecting significant changes in northern European security requirements following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the measures were aimed at achieving a government savings of SKr 2 billion a year over the next five years. They were to be debated by the Riksdag during the first few months of 1999.

      For many Swedes the year drew to an end on a distressing note. Two tragedies—a fire in Göteborg that killed 63 youths at a discotheque and the murder of a four-year-old child by two young boys, aged five and seven—prompted outpourings of national grief and soul-searching. The fire, in late October, was the worst in Sweden during peacetime. Most of the dead were immigrant teenagers unable to escape from an overfull dance hall. The killing of the four-year-old boy occurred in August, but the culprits—who were below the age of criminal responsibility and would not be tried—were not discovered until November.

GREG MCIVOR

▪ 1998

      Area: 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi)

      Population (1997 est.): 8,863,000

      Capital: Stockholm

      Chief of state: King Carl XVI Gustaf

      Head of government: Prime Minister Göran Persson

      When they looked back on 1997, Sweden's government ministers would be able to reflect on one major achievement. After an arduous process begun in 1991, they could finally claim victory in their battle to stabilize the government's finances. The national budget, burdened throughout the 1990s by economic weakness and overspending on welfare, would be balanced in 1998, the government announced in its April budget.

      This represented a notable achievement, considering that Sweden's annual budget deficit had recently been 12.3% of gross domestic product. It came, though, at the price of popularity for the ruling Social Democratic Labour Party (SAP). Public discontent with high unemployment and continued cuts in welfare spending triggered a downward swing in the SAP's opinion-poll standings. Midyear polls showed the SAP, long unchallenged as Sweden's largest political grouping, trailing the main opposition conservative Moderate Coalition Party for the first time in many years. As 1997 ended, however, the SAP—facing a general election in 1998—had regained a narrow lead.

      As the year wore on, Prime Minister Göran Persson's administration could take solace in a decline in the unemployment rate. The official unemployment figure—which excluded the tens of thousands on government-funded work and training projects—had hovered persistently at 8% since the government took power in 1994. In November, however, the figure fell suddenly to 272,000, or 6.5%, the lowest level in five years. Economists attributed the improvement to a healthier economy and the impact of a large-scale government training program announced earlier in the year.

      Indeed, such was the newfound health of the economy that Sweden found itself among the group of European Union countries qualified to form the planned European single currency in 1999. The nation was, however, deeply skeptical about many of the plans of the EU, and it came as no surprise in June when the government announced the country's nonparticipation in the monetary union, declaring the project to be "very uncertain."

      Outside the political and economic domain, 1997 was punctuated by a string of revelations that discomfited the establishment. The year got off to a sour start in January with newspaper revelations that Sweden may have used as much as seven metric tons of gold bought from Nazi Germany, despite suspicions that the gold may have been stolen from victims of persecution. The disclosures, based upon documents in the Riksbank (central bank) archives, set the scene for the launch of a government inquiry in February into neutral Sweden's role during World War II.

      In August the country was rocked by allegations that some 60,000 people, mostly women, were forcibly sterilized as part of a government-sponsored eugenics program between 1935 and 1976. The Health and Social Affairs Ministry ordered an independent inquiry into the role played by politicians and medical officials in regard to the sterilization of the mentally retarded and of Swedes from non-Nordic ethnic backgrounds, under laws that were not repealed until 1976.

      Barely a month later a fresh political row erupted. This time the claims were that SŠpo, Sweden's security service, had breached a parliamentary edict that in the 1960s banned the keeping of dossiers on citizens because of their political views. It emerged that well into the 1970s SŠpo had monitored and compiled files on people with left-wing leanings. The formerly communist Left Party and four other parties demanded an independent commission to examine SŠpo's actions. The government conceded the establishment of a parliamentary inquiry but rejected the setting up of a commission, saying it was confident that the compilation of dossiers for political reasons had not been prevalent.

      Perhaps the most significant decision made during the year was to begin the controversial shutdown of Sweden's nuclear power industry. Defying a hail of criticism from industry, trade unions, and opposition parties, the SAP announced that the first of the country's 12 reactors would close in 1998, in line with a referendum decision in 1980. As of 1997, nuclear power supplied half of Sweden's electricity needs, but the government insisted that the country could meet the deficit by saving energy and increasing the use of alternative energy sources.

GREG MCIVOR

▪ 1997

      A constitutional monarchy of northern Europe, Sweden occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, with coastlines on the North and Baltic seas and the Gulf of Bothnia. Area: 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). Pop. (1996 est.): 8,858,000. Cap.: Stockholm. Monetary unit: Swedish krona, with (Oct. 11, 1996) a free rate of 6.60 kronor to U.S. $1 (10.39 kronor = £1 sterling). King, Carl XVI Gustaf; prime ministers in 1996, Ingvar Carlsson and, from March 21, Göran Persson.

      An era in Swedish politics came to a close when Ingvar Carlsson, the Social Democratic prime minister, retired in March after a decade as party leader. Carlsson, who replaced the assassinated Olof Palme in 1986, handed the baton to Göran Persson, Sweden's finance minister. The appointment of Persson as only the fifth Social Democratic leader in 71 years was preceded by the fall from grace of Mona Sahlin, the youthful deputy prime minister. Widely expected to become the country's first female prime minister, she was forced to resign amid revelations that she used her government credit card for private purposes, although she was later cleared of any criminal offense.

      Persson began where he left off as finance minister—by continuing to spearhead government efforts to alleviate Sweden's chronic budget deficit. When the Social Democrats came to power in 1994, the annual shortfall was about 13% of gross domestic product (GDP). But a prescription of welfare cuts and tax increases pruned it back to a projected 2.6% of GDP in 1997, which put Sweden in a position to qualify for the European economic and monetary union.

      Completing the overhaul of the state's finances was a key achievement for the Social Democrats. But the cost was high; unemployment rose, hovering persistently around 13%—a distressing spectacle for many in a country weaned on a long tradition of near-full employment. Describing joblessness as its foremost challenge, the government pledged early in the year to reduce the "headline" rate (which excluded people employed on government-sponsored projects and training programs) from about 8% to 4% by the year 2000.

      Measures to achieve this included the initiation in September of reforms to inject flexibility into Sweden's tightly regulated labour market. This, however, caused consternation in the country's most powerful trade union confederation, the Landsorganisation. The association, which had 2.2 million members and had been a close ally of the Social Democratic Labour Party for almost a century, condemned the proposals as an attack on worker security. It accused the government of lurching to the right and briefly threatened to withhold its 20 million kronor annual contribution to party funds.

      The Social Democrats, heading a minority government, cemented an unofficial alliance with the agrarian-based Centre Party. Its leader, Olof Johansson, had been a prominent member of the previous right-wing coalition but declared his support for the Social Democrats in order, he said, for Sweden to have a stable parliamentary government.

      Abroad the growing focus of Swedish foreign policy on the Baltic region continued in 1996. The government in May acted as host of the first international meeting of leaders of the nine countries that border the Baltic Sea. The event led to the creation of a Baltic council under Swedish stewardship, with a mandate to coordinate action against such problems as pollution and organized crime, as well as promoting cross-border business collaboration.

      There was, however, embarrassment in Stockholm in September over the arrest and expulsion of two Swedes, including a high-ranking diplomat, from Russia in connection with alleged spying. Russian undercover agents caught on film one suspect, an employee of a Swedish defense company, receiving copies of secret documents from a contact in St. Petersburg.

      In August Queen Silvia (see BIOGRAPHIES (Queen Silvia )) welcomed delegates from more than 100 countries to Stockholm for the first World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children. (GREG McIVOR)

▪ 1996

      A constitutional monarchy of northern Europe, Sweden occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, with coastlines on the North and Baltic seas and the Gulf of Bothnia. Area: 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 8,826,000. Cap.: Stockholm. Monetary unit: Swedish krona, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 7.03 kronor to U.S. $1 (11.11 kronor = £1 sterling). King, Carl XVI Gustaf; prime minister in 1995, Ingvar Carlsson.

      Sweden entered the European Union (EU) on Jan. 1, 1995, in a significant break with its traditionally aloof and neutral stance in foreign affairs. It joined the EU alongside its Nordic neighbour Finland as well as Austria, expanding the union from 12 to 15 members. Although a net contributor to EU budgets, Sweden hoped to enhance the country's influence in Europe and increase inward investment.

      One early Swedish initiative was a move to get employment targets included in EU economic strategy at the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference on the union's future. Relations with France went sour, however, after Sweden vociferously opposed the French decision to carry out nuclear tests in the South Pacific.

      For many Swedes the first months in the EU were a disappointment. They did not see any early visible benefits from membership, such as lower food prices or big regional aid programs. A backlash made itself felt in elections for the country's 22 seats in the European Parliament in September. The anti-EU left and environment parties gained 30.1% of the vote—almost triple their support in the country's 1994 general election. By contrast, the three parties that unequivocally supported the EU polled only 32%, and the ruling Social Democrats, whose party was split on the issue, gained just 28.1% in its worst election result since 1911. At just 41.3% of the electorate, the turnout was the lowest ever recorded in a Swedish election.

      It was a difficult year for the Social Democrats, who had formed a minority government after winning elections in September 1994. In the early months of the year, the party announced a series of spending cuts and tax increases to restore the health of the state's deficit-ridden finances. A number of the measures, including a cut in unemployment benefits, were deeply unpopular with the rank and file as well as with the party's traditional allies in the strong trade union movement. Business leaders objected to the higher taxes. In April the Social Democrats began to cooperate with the Centre Party to gain a parliamentary majority. This was an informal pact rather than a coalition.

      In August Ingvar Carlsson said he would step down as leader of the Social Democrats and prime minister in March 1996. The party leadership had hoped for a smooth succession, with the mantle of power passing to Mona Sahlin, Carlsson's 38-year-old deputy. Sahlin's candidacy ran into serious trouble in October, however, when she admitted using a government credit card for private purposes. The public prosecutor launched a preliminary inquiry into the matter to see if breach of trust or fraud had occurred. The name of another possible candidate for prime minister, Finance Minister Göran Persson, emerged in December.

      There was better news on the economy as the recovery that began in 1994 continued into 1995. Gross domestic product (GDP) rose more than 3% during the year, mainly because of a strong performance by the country's big exporters. Inflation peaked above 3% at midyear but then began to ease.

      The country also regained the confidence of international financial markets. At the start of the year, the krona sank sharply and bond yields rose as Sweden became caught up in the turbulence that followed the crisis over the Mexican peso. From April onward, however, market analysts became convinced that the country was doing enough to tackle its debt, which climbed above 80% of GDP, and cut its budget deficit. The krona gained strength, and bond yields dropped sharply. In October Carlsson said economic growth was stronger than expected and the country would stabilize its debt as a proportion of GDP in 1995, a year ahead of an earlier forecast. Unemployment remained a serious blight; around 12% of the workforce was affected, including those in training schemes.

      Carl Bildt, former prime minister and leader of the Moderate (conservative) Party, stepped into the international limelight in June when he became the EU's peace mediator in former Yugoslavia. In August the country staged the world track and field championships in Göteborg, the biggest global sporting event of the year.

      (CHRISTOPHER BROWN-HUMES)

▪ 1995

      A constitutional monarchy of northern Europe, Sweden occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, with coastlines on the North and Baltic seas and the Gulf of Bothnia. Area: 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 8,773,000. Cap.: Stockholm. Monetary unit: Swedish krona, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 7.32 kronor to U.S. $1 (11.64 kronor = £1 sterling). King, Carl XVI Gustaf; prime ministers in 1994, Carl Bildt until September 19 and, from October 7, Ingvar Carlsson.

      Swedes made their most important decision since World War II when they voted to join the European Union (EU) in a referendum on Nov. 13, 1994. The move, which was due to take effect on Jan. 1, 1995, ended a long period during which Sweden deliberately distanced itself from mainstream Europe, cherishing its neutrality and championing the cause of small Third World countries.

      The referendum endorsed EU entry by a margin of 52.2% to 46.9%. The political establishment and business leaders strongly advocated membership, but they faced determined opposition from left-wing groups and environmentalists. The country was also split along geographic lines, with southern urban areas broadly favouring membership while sparsely populated rural and Arctic communities opposed it.

      Sweden's accession to the EU alongside its Nordic neighbour Finland would tilt the union's axis northward, countering the southern shift that took place in the 1980s when Spain, Portugal, and Greece joined. It also cleared the way for the next, eastward, phase of expansion that could bring such countries as Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic into the EU. Sweden was expected to be a net contributor to the EU budget. It believed that price was worth paying because of the influence it would gain in Europe's future political, economic, and military development.

      The referendum result was a personal triumph for Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson, who had led the Social Democrats back to power in September's general election after three years of rule by a centre-right coalition. The Social Democrats won 162 seats in the 349-seat Riksdag (parliament), 13 short of a majority. Carlsson decided to form a minority government rather than establish a formal coalition with left-wing or centrist parties.

      The Social Democrats, who had governed Sweden for most of the past six decades, returned to power on hopes that they could achieve economic stability, substantially reduce unemployment, and preserve the welfare state. They also benefited from a reaction against some of the unpopular policies pursued by the previous government in the face of deep recession.

      The Swedish economy remained weak. The good news was that the gross national product grew for the first time since 1990, owing mainly to the success of the country's big exporters. They had an exceptional year because of the weak krona, productivity gains, and a recovery in most of their main markets. Inflation remained below 3%.

      The legacy of the three recession years was a heavy one, however. The crisis manifested itself in the size of the Swedish budget deficit, which—at 13% of gross domestic product—was among the highest in the Western world, and in the rapid growth in the national debt.

      The difficulties resulted in a turbulent year in the bond markets, with Swedish long-term interest rates among the highest in Europe. One leading Swedish insurer, Skandia, refused to buy any more state bonds until the government had put its finances in order.

      In November the Social Democrats announced 57 billion kronor in tax increases and spending cuts in a drive to stabilize the growth of the national debt by 1998. They promised to announce a further 20 billion kronor package of measures in January 1995. Business leaders said that too much emphasis was being placed on tax increases, which could endanger the country's long-term competitiveness. The financial stock market remained convinced that tougher measures would have to be taken to prune the country's lavish cradle-to-grave welfare state.

      Unemployment remained a serious problem for Sweden in 1994, although economic recovery brought the first indications that the problem was easing. Unemployment was about 13% of the workforce, including those in training programs. The new government was particularly eager to reduce the number of long-term and young unemployed to prevent the problem from becoming entrenched at a permanently high level. (CHRISTOPHER BROWN-HUMES)

▪ 1994

      A constitutional monarchy of northern Europe, Sweden occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, with coastlines on the North and Baltic seas and the Gulf of Bothnia. Area: 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). Pop. (1993 est.): 8,727,000. Cap.: Stockholm. Monetary unit: Swedish krona, with (Oct. 4, 1993) a free rate of 8.07 kronor to U.S. $1 (12.23 kronor = £1 sterling). King, Carl XVI Gustaf; prime minister in 1993, Carl Bildt.

      It was apparent that Swedes would not be sorry to see the end of 1993. It was the third consecutive year of the country's deepest economic slump in more than 50 years. By many measures the crisis was worse in 1993 than in either of the two previous years, although there were firm signs that the bottom of the cycle had been reached by year's end.

      There were two main problems: rapidly rising unemployment and a budget deficit that in relative terms was the largest in the Western world. Unemployment—including those involved in training schemes— reached 13% in 1993, a level that would have been unthinkable even two years earlier. It cruelly exposed the famed generosity of the Swedish welfare state and the centre-right coalition government's inability to fund it in a harsh economic climate.

      The crisis forced the government to abandon its tax-cutting plans and switch its emphasis to cutting costs. At the centre of the program was a plan to reduce the budget by 81 billion kronor over five years. The government ruled out any attempt to stimulate the economy, such as a general cut in the value-added tax, on the grounds that the country could not afford it. There were still doubts about whether the government was doing enough to come to grips with the difficulties, and this, together with the sheer size of Sweden's borrowing requirement, weighed on the financial markets for much of the year. The result was a gradual weakening of the Swedish krona, which proved highly beneficial for the country's big multinational exporters. However, they were unable to exploit fully their newfound competitiveness because of the continuing recession in many of Sweden's main European markets, particularly Germany. In December the automaker Volvo A.B., yielding to intense pressure from share holders, canceled plans to merge its car and truck operations with Renault S.A. of France.

      The economic problems made 1993 a difficult year for the four-party coalition government led by Prime Minister Carl Bildt. In the spring the coalition's survival was seriously threatened when New Democracy, a populist party outside the government, looked set to vote against it in a vote of confidence triggered by a row over the budget. In the end the crisis was averted following concessions from the government that brought tacit support for its policies from New Democracy for the rest of the year.

      Sweden began negotiations to join the European Community (EC) in February, taking its place alongside Norway, Finland, and Austria in the enlargement discussions. Unlike some of its fellow applicants, Sweden chose not to strike an aggressive stance on any particular issue, although it was clear it was looking for sympathetic treatment in some areas, such as agriculture and alcohol policy. (Like Norway and Finland, Sweden had for many years operated an alcohol monopoly it wanted to retain on health grounds.) Membership in the EC was backed by all the major political parties, as well as the vast majority of business leaders.

      Sweden had already signed up for the European Economic Area, the free-trade agreement between the EC and the seven-nation European Free Trade Association that was scheduled to take effect some time in 1994. The country was then to join the EC in January 1995, but the timetable would be tight. The negotiations had to be completed early in 1994, and a referendum had to be held specifically on the membership issue. Political leaders would have to work hard if they were going to persuade a skeptical population that the EC was worth joining. Opinion polls in 1993 showed a solid majority against membership.

      Sweden's application to join the EC reflected a country in transition from semi-isolation on the fringes of Europe to full integration in it. The sense of uncertainty this had caused was enhanced by other changes within the country, such as the scaling back of the welfare state and the rise in unemployment. Some Swedes unfairly confused the two, blaming the EC integration process for cuts in services. Unemployment also brought with it increased social and racial tensions in a country with little experience of either.

      (CHRISTOPHER BROWN-HUMES)

* * *

Introduction

Sweden, flag of   country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in northern Europe. The name Sweden was derived from the Svear, or Suiones, a people mentioned as early as AD 98 by the Roman author Tacitus. The country's ancient name was Svithiod. Stockholm has been the permanent capital since 1523.

      Sweden occupies the greater part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, which it shares with Norway. The land slopes gently from the high mountains along the Norwegian frontier eastward to the Baltic Sea. Geologically, it is one of the oldest and most stable parts of the Earth's crust. Its surface formations and soils were altered by the receding glaciers of the Pleistocene Epoch (about 1,800,000 to 10,000 years ago). Lakes dot the fairly flat landscape, and thousands of islands form archipelagoes along more than 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of jagged, rocky coastline. Like all of northwestern Europe, Sweden has a generally favourable climate relative to its northerly latitude owing to moderate southwesterly winds and the warm North Atlantic Current.

      The country has a 1,000-year-long continuous history as a sovereign state, but its territorial expanse changed often until 1809. Today it is a constitutional monarchy with a well-established parliamentary democracy that dates from 1917. Swedish society is ethnically and religiously very homogeneous, although recent immigration has created some social diversity. Historically, Sweden rose from backwardness and poverty into a highly developed postindustrial society and advanced welfare state with a standard of living and life expectancy that rank among the highest in the world.

      Sweden long ago disavowed the military aggressiveness that once involved its armies deeply in Europe's centuries of dynastic warfare. It has chosen instead to play a balancing role among the world's conflicting ideological and political systems. It is for this reason that Swedish statesmen have often been sought out to fill major positions in the United Nations. At peace since 1814, Sweden has followed the doctrine, enunciated in every document on foreign policy since World War II, of “nonalignment in peace aiming at neutrality (neutralism) in war.”

Land (Sweden)

      Finland lies to the northeast of Sweden; a long coastline forms the country's eastern border, extending along the Gulf of Bothnia (Bothnia, Gulf of) and the Baltic Sea; a narrow strait, known as the Sound (Sound, The) (Öresund), separates Sweden from Denmark in the south; a shorter coastline along the Skagerrak and Kattegat straits forms Sweden's border to the southwest; and Norway lies to the west. Sweden extends some 1,000 miles (1,600 km) to the north and south and 310 miles (500 km) to the east and west.

 The country is traditionally divided into three regions: to the north is Norrland, the vast mountain and forest region; in central Sweden is Svealand, an expanse of lowland in the east and highland in the west; and in the south is Götaland, which includes the Småland highlands and, at the southern extremity, the small but rich plains of Skåne. In the far north, the region of Lappland overlaps Norrland and northern Finland.

Relief

 Norrland is the largest and most sparsely populated of the regions, covering some three-fifths of the country. The region features an undulating surface of rounded hills and mountains, large lakes, and extensive river valleys. To the west lie the Kölen (Kjølen; Scandinavian) Mountains, through which runs the border demarcating Sweden and Norway. This range is characterized by numerous glaciers, the southernmost of which is on Helags Mountain (Helagsfjället), near the Norwegian border. At the region's far northern edge, north of the Arctic Circle, are Sweden's highest peaks: Mount Kebne (Kebnekaise) (Kebnekaise), which is 6,926 feet (2,111 metres) in elevation, and Mount Sarek (Sarektjåkkå), which rises 6,854 feet (2,089 metres), in the magnificent Sarek National Park.

      The interior of southern Sweden, Småland, is a wooded upland with elevations of 980 to 1,300 feet (300 to 400 metres). A region of poor and stony soils, Småland has been cultivated through the ages with some difficulty, as evidenced by the enormous mounds of stone cleared from the land. More recently the area has been characterized by flourishing small factories.

      Except for a stretch of scenic “high coast,” the Bothnian coastal plain is low-lying and stretches from Norrland into Svealand. Most of the fairly level surface of eastern Svealand and northern Götaland was pressed below sea level by glaciers, leaving a landscape of fragmented bedrock, fertile clayey plains, numerous lakes, and sandy ridges. Today these are intermingled with mixed forests and farmland. Sweden's landscape changes from the hills of Småland to the fertile plains of Skåne, which is physiographically and economically more similar to Denmark than to the rest of Sweden. This is Sweden's oldest settled and most densely populated agricultural area.

      The Swedish coastline is typically rocky, with hundreds of small, sometimes wooded islands. Ground by glacial ice in the same direction, they have a common rounded shape. This type of coast, known as skärgård, is found in both the east and the west, especially around Stockholm and Göteborg. Off the southern coast in the Baltic, the large, flat islands of Öland and Gotland are outcropping layers of sandstone and limestone.

Drainage

 The country's chief rivers originate in the mountains of Norrland, mostly flowing southeastward with many falls and rapids and emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia (Bothnia, Gulf of) or the Baltic Sea. The longest, however, is the Klar-Göta River, which rises in Norway and flows 447 miles (719 km), reaching Lake Väner (Vänern) and continuing southward out of the lake's southern end to the North Sea; along its southernmost course are the famous falls of Trollhättan. The Muonio and Torne (Torne River) rivers form the frontier with Finland, and in the south the Dal River marks the transition to Svealand. The rivers, except in the far north, where they are protected, are sources of hydroelectric power.

      In Svealand are Sweden's largest lakes, including Lakes Väner (Väner, Lake), 2,156 square miles (5,582 square km); Vätter (Vätter, Lake) (Vättern), 738 square miles (1,911 square km); and Mälar (Mälaren) (Mälar, Lake), 440 square miles (1,139 square km). The shores of Lakes Siljan (Siljan, Lake) and Storsjön and the river valleys support agriculture.

Soils

      The dominant soil of Sweden is till, formed under glacial ice. Till that comes from the archaic bedrock of granites and gneisses forms a poor soil, and forestry and polluted (acid) rain add to its acidification. On the other hand, small areas of clayey till from younger sedimentary limestone, scattered mainly in southern Sweden, form brown earth, providing agricultural soils of high fertility. In addition, vast areas of central Sweden are covered by heavy and fertile sea-bottom clays raised out of the sea by postglacial land uplift. One-fifth of the country, especially in rainy southwestern Sweden and the cold far north, is covered by marshland and peat.

Climate

 About 15 percent of the country lies within the Arctic Circle. From about late May until mid-July, sunlight lasts around the clock north of the Arctic Circle, but, even as far south as Stockholm, the nights during this period have only a few hours of semidarkness. In mid-December, on the other hand, Stockholm experiences only about 5.5 hours of daylight; in areas as far north as Lappland, there are nearly 20 hours of total darkness relieved by a mere 4 hours of twilight.

      Considering its northerly geographic location (at the latitude of parts of Greenland and Siberia), Sweden enjoys a favourable climate. From the southwest, Atlantic low-pressure winds blow in air warmed by the North Atlantic Current and make the weather mild but changeable. Another type of influence comes from continental high pressures to the east. These create sunny weather, which is hot in summer and cold in winter. The interaction between the Atlantic and continental influences causes periodic shifts in climate.

      The north-to-south extension of the country and the higher elevation of the northern part results in great regional differences in winter climate. The northern interior receives heavy snowfall for up to eight months of the year and has severe temperatures that drop as low as -22 to -40 °F (-30 to -40 °C). The average January temperature in Haparanda at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia is 10 °F (-12 °C). Sea ice covers the Gulf of Bothnia from November to May.

      In southern Sweden winters vary more from year to year than in the north; snowfall is irregular, and average January temperatures range between 23 and 32 °F (-5 and 0 °C). Coastal waters seldom freeze.

      Summer temperatures vary far less, although summer is much shorter in the north. In terms of average daily temperature, “spring” arrives in Skåne during February but not until late May in northernmost Norrland; then it may come virtually overnight. The mean July temperature in Haparanda is 59 °F (15 °C), and in Malmö 63 °F (17 °C).

      Late summer and autumn are the rainiest seasons, but precipitation falls throughout the year. Annual precipitation averages about 24 inches (600 mm).

Plant and animal life

      Most of Sweden is dominated by forests of fir, pine, and birch. Southern Sweden has more mixed forests, and in the far south deciduous trees such as beech, oak, linden, ash, elm, and maple are common. The forests are rich in berries, lingonberries and blueberries among them, and mushrooms. In Sweden anyone is entitled to hike through the forests and fields and pick berries and mushrooms.

      In the high mountains coniferous trees give way to mountain birches, which extend up to the tree line at an elevation of 1,600 to 2,900 feet (480 to 880 metres). The treeless mountains with their heaths, marshes, and boulder fields have Alpine flora. Dwarf birch and willows are typical.

      Owing to their limestone bedrock and mild climate, Gotland and Öland have a special flora that includes many orchids.

 Bears and lynx still inhabit the northern forests, while wolves are making a comeback, having become almost completely extinct in the 20th century. Throughout the country are large numbers of moose, roe deer, foxes, and hares. The moose is a great prize for hunters, but it also constitutes a traffic hazard. Hunting and fishing are closely regulated, and many species of animals are fully protected. Large herds of domesticated reindeer owned by Sami (Lapps) graze the northern mountains and forests.

      Winter birdlife is dominated by a few species, but summer brings large numbers of migratory birds from southern Europe and Africa, as, for example, cranes and wild geese. Sweden has a rich variety of aquatic animal life, but environmental pollution has taken its toll. This applies significantly to the Baltic seal. Fish species include the cod and mackerel of the deep, salty Atlantic and the salmon and pike found in the far less saline Baltic and in lakes and rivers. Atlantic herring and its smaller relative, the Baltic herring, are traditional staple foods.

Conservation

      Sweden has been in the vanguard of countries seeking to preserve the natural environment. It was the first European country to establish a national park ( Sarek National Park was established in 1909), thereby preserving part of Europe's last wilderness. The first Nature Conservancy Act was adopted in 1909, and in 1969 a modern environmental protection act was passed. Since then tens of thousands of square miles have been set aside as national parks and nature reserves. Serious environmental problems persist nevertheless. About one-fifth of the lakes in Sweden have been damaged by acidification, and groundwater too is threatened. A chief cause is sulfur fallout (i.e., contamination by what is commonly known as acid rain); most of the sulfur is discharged into the atmosphere by industrial facilities in nearby countries. Pollution in the Baltic Sea and the coastal waters of the Kattegat and Skagerrak also is considered severe.

People (Sweden)

Ethnic groups

      Although different groups of immigrants have influenced Swedish culture through the centuries, the population has been unusually homogeneous in ethnic stock, language, and religion. It is only since World War II that notable change has occurred in the ethnic pattern. From 1970 to the early 1990s, net immigration accounted for about three-fourths of the population growth. By far, most of the immigrants have come from the neighbouring Nordic countries, with which Sweden shares a common labour market. Immigration from other countries is regulated, but such regulation is relaxed under certain circumstances. Today nearly one in five Swedes has at least one parent who was not born in Sweden. Sweden has two minority groups of indigenous inhabitants: the Finnish-speaking people of the northeast along the Finnish border, and the Sami (Lapp) population of about 15,000 scattered throughout the northern Swedish interior. Once a hunting and fishing people, the latter group developed a reindeer-herding system that they still operate. Most of the Sami in Sweden have other occupations as well.

Languages

      Swedish (Swedish language), the national language of Sweden and the mother tongue of approximately nine-tenths of the population, is a Nordic language. It belongs to the North Germanic (Scandinavian languages) (Scandinavian) subgroup of the Germanic languages and is closely related to the Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faeroese languages. It has been influenced at times by German, but it has also borrowed some words and syntax from French, English, and Finnish. A common standard language (rikssvenska) has been in use more than 100 years. The traditionally varying dialects of the provinces, although homogenized rapidly through the influences of education and the mass media, are still widely spoken. Swedish is also spoken by about 300,000 Finland-Swedes. Swedish law recognizes Sami and Finnish (both of which belong to the Uralic (Uralic languages) language group), as well as Meänkieli (the Finnish of the Torne Valley), Romani, and Yiddish as national minority languages, along with sign language. About 200 languages are now spoken in Sweden, owing to immigrants and refugees.

Religion

      Prehistoric archaeological artifacts and sites—including graves and rock carvings—give an indication of the ancient system of religious beliefs practiced in Sweden during the pre-Christian era. The sun and seasons figured largely, in tandem with fertility rites meant to ensure good harvests. These practices were informed by a highly developed mythic cycle, describing a distinctive cosmology and the deeds of the Old Norse (Old Norse language) gods, giants, and demons. Important gods included Odin, Thor, Freyr, and Freyja. Great sacrificial rites, thought to have taken place every eight years at Old Uppsala, were described by the author Adam Of Bremen in the 11th century.

      Sweden adopted Christianity in the 11th century, and for nearly 500 years Roman Catholicism was the preeminent religion. Sweden was the home to Saint Bridget (Bridget of Sweden, Saint), founder of the Brigittine convent at Vadstena. As the first waves of the Protestant Reformation (Reformation) swept Europe in the mid-1500s, Lutheranism took hold in Sweden, and it remained dominant through the 20th century. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden (Sweden, Church of) was the official state church until 2000; about four-fifths of the population remain members of this church. Since the late 1800s a number of independent churches have emerged; however, their members can also belong to the Church of Sweden. Immigration has brought a steady increase to the membership of the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Islamic religions. Judaism is the country's oldest global non-Christian religion, practiced in Sweden since 1776. After Christianity, Islam is the largest religion in Sweden, with about 100,000 active practitioners at the turn of the 21st century, although the number of Swedes of Muslim heritage was nearly three times that number.

Settlement patterns

      The majority of Sweden's population, small in relation to its land area, lives in the southern third of the country, and most of these people live in towns.

       Götaland and Svealand, the two southernmost of Sweden's traditional regions, take their names from small prehistoric clans who inhabited central Sweden. The Svear and the Götar (believed by some scholars to be the original Goths (Goth)) were united into one state about AD 1000. The Götar lived in Östergötland, Västergötland, and Småland, and the Svear around Lake Mälar (Mälar, Lake). Certain differences remain in the dialects spoken in these two regions. Skåne and the surrounding regions were taken from the Danish crown in the 17th century, and Skåne is still looked upon as a special region in both language and customs, noted for its rich food and hospitality. The vast Norrland was colonized later by Swedes. It is far less populated than the southern and central regions.

Rural settlement

      Through the course of the 19th century, land reforms gradually dissolved village communities, consolidated farmland, divided commons, and dispersed farms. The reforms favoured modernization of agriculture. Nucleated villages were preserved in Dalarna and on the island of Öland, and a few surviving traditional farm buildings serve as representations of the rural heritage. Settlements grew up along seacoasts and lakeshores, and inland towns arose as markets in old agricultural and mining areas. In the country and in suburban communities, houses are often painted a traditional red with paint made from material produced since the 1700s at the copper mine in Falun. Norrland is thinly populated, with approximately three inhabitants per square kilometre, as compared with about 250 in Stockholm.

      Numerous vacation homes dot the coasts and mountains, and castles and manors from the 16th–18th century are located mostly in the far south and around Lake Mälar.

Urban settlement

      Urban growth in Sweden has followed industrialization. Location of new urban sites was strongly influenced by the development of the railway network and by the exploitation of the natural resources of northern Sweden. At present about 80 percent of the population lives in urban centres. Until 1870 no more than 10 percent of the population was urban. The vast majority of the people live in the Stockholm- Göteborg- Malmö triangle and along the coast north of Stockholm. In Sweden the average living space is relatively large.

Demographic trends

      The period of rapid economic growth after World War II caused dramatic migration from the countryside and smaller towns throughout Sweden to the large urban centres. Numerous communities suffered depopulation as young and educated people left to improve their lives. This trend brought countermeasures from the state, including subsidies for enterprises in northern and southeastern Sweden and a transfer of state agencies from Stockholm to outlying centres.

Economy

      Sweden's per capita gross national product (GNP) is among the highest in the world, but so are its taxes. Most enterprises are privately owned and market-oriented, but when transfer payments—such as pensions, sick pay, and child allowances—are included, roughly three-fifths of gross domestic product (GDP) passes through the public sector. Education, health care, and child care costs are primarily met by taxation. Government involvement in the distribution of national income, however, diminished over the last two decades of the 20th century.

      With the value of exports amounting to about one-third of its GDP, Sweden is highly dependent on free international trade to maintain its living standard. In 1991 Sweden attached its currency, the krona, to the ecu (European currency unit, replaced in 1999 by the euro), but in 1992 Sweden abandoned its peg to the ecu and allowed the krona valuation to float. Sweden's currency remained independent even after the country became a full member of the European Union (EU) in 1995. In 1999 an executive board of Sweden's Riksbank was established to set monetary policy and sustain price stability. Sweden also has to cope with problems of competitiveness that have caused industry to invest much more abroad than at home. Most of Sweden's large industrial companies are transnational, and some employ more people abroad than in Sweden, where production costs are high.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

 The growing season in Sweden ranges from about 240 days in the south to 120 days in the north. Less than one-tenth of Sweden's land area is under cultivation. Most arable land is found in southern Sweden, but there are arable parcels up to the Arctic Circle. Wheat, barley, sugar beets, oilseeds, potatoes, and staple vegetables dominate in the south, while in the north hay and potatoes are the main crops. In Sweden as a whole, animal agriculture is more significant than cereal farming. Dairy cows are important in all parts of the country, while pig and poultry raising are concentrated in the extreme south. The yields of Swedish farms are among the highest in the world. Environmental problems, however, have made it necessary to reduce the use of fertilizers.

      About half of Swedish forestland is privately owned, about one-fourth company-owned, and about one-fourth publicly owned. Forest work used to be complementary winter employment for small farmers using their horses; today forestry is carried on year-round by a small workforce and large, modern machinery. Nearly three-fourths of all Swedish farms have timberland. The average regrowth and harvest time for spruce and pine is about 50 years in the south and roughly 140 years in the north. Since the late 19th century, forestry in Sweden has been conducted on a sustained-yield basis, which establishes a ratio between cutting and new growth that is strictly enforced. Modern large-scale forestry methods have been subject to severe criticism, and major reforms were implemented in the 1990s. A thorough mapping and inventory of key woodland habitats was undertaken in the mid-1990s to identify areas with high biodiversity values.

 Fishing occupies a small sector of the Swedish economy. Through international agreements, Sweden has lost some of its traditional fishing areas in the North Sea. Herring, cod, plaice, mackerel, and salmon are fished, as well as shrimp and lobster. Göteborg is the leading fishing harbour and fish market.

Resources and power

      Wood, metallic ores, and waterpower constitute the historical basis for Sweden's industrial economy. The country is lacking in fossil fuels and must rely on imports for its needs. Hydroelectric power is used to a high degree but provides only about half of the electric energy needed; most of the rest is derived from nuclear power.

 Sweden is well endowed with mineral resources. The huge state-owned iron ore deposits at Kiruna in Lappland were opened to export at the end of the 19th century. In the Boliden area of Norrland a wide range of metals, including gold, copper, lead, and zinc, are mined. The copper, silver, and iron ore deposits of central Sweden either have been largely exhausted or are unprofitable to extract.

Manufacturing

      Manufacturing is export-oriented and produces the bulk of Sweden's export income. Nevertheless, the number of workers employed in private industry is smaller than the number of public employees.

      Sweden is a major world exporter of forest products. Timber is transported via a dense road and rail network. Sawmills and pulp and paper factories process the forest products. Swedish manufacturers produce a variety of wood products, including paper, boards, and prefabricated houses and furniture. The pulp and paper industry developed originally at the mouths of rivers along the Gulf of Bothnia (Bothnia, Gulf of) and Lake Väner (Väner, Lake). More recently, plants have been located on the coasts of southern Sweden.

      Sweden's metal industry still follows a pattern established during the days when waterpower and forestland (yielding charcoal fuel) determined the location of iron (iron processing) mills. The iron and steel industry is thus still largely found in the Bergslagen region of central Sweden. The iron and steel mills built in the 20th century, at Oxelösund and Luleå, are located on the coast.

      Privately owned firms currently produce about nine-tenths of industrial output. Engineering, including the automotive industry, is by far the largest manufacturing industry, producing about half of industrial value added. The automotive and aerospace industries have their main plants in south-central Sweden; automobiles are manufactured by Volvo (Volvo Aktiebolaget) in Göteborg and by Saab (Saab AB) in Trollhättan; heavy vehicles are produced in Södertälje, and aircraft in Linköping.

      The electric and electronics industry is concentrated in Stockholm and Västerås. Stockholm is a leading centre for the production of communications equipment. The small metal- and plastic-processing industries, with centres in the forested areas of southern Sweden, have, like the glassware industry, maintained their vitality through flexibility and continued creativity. Stenungsund on the west coast is a centre for the petrochemical industry. The pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries are rapidly expanding fields, located near leading medical research centres. The construction sector and the food-processing industry also play increasingly important roles. Sweden also has an advanced war matériel industry.

Finance

      The Swedish banking system is dominated by a small number of major commercial banks. The bank of issue is the Swedish Central Bank, and the country's currency is the Swedish krona. There also are savings banks, niche banks, and foreign banks active in Sweden.

Trade

      Exports account for about one-third of Sweden's GDP. The emphasis has shifted from export of raw materials and semimanufactured products (pulp, steel, sawn wood) to finished goods, dominated by engineering products (cars, telecommunications equipment, hydroelectric power plant equipment) and, increasingly, high technology and chemical- and biotechnology. Together Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, Norway, Finland, and Denmark account for about half of Sweden's export market.

      Imports are more diversified than exports. Before the 1980s petroleum was the single most important import, accounting for more than one-fourth of the total value. In 1990 petroleum accounted for less than 5 percent of the total. Almost half comes from the import of engineering products (including motor vehicles, business machines, and computer equipment). Among the imported foodstuffs are coffee, tea, fruit, and fish. Chemicals and textiles are other groups of imported goods. Germany is the main supplier of Sweden's imports, followed by the United Kingdom, Norway, and Denmark.

Services

      More than one-third of actively employed Swedes work in the service sector. Moreover, in the early 21st century, the export of services—including business services and technology consultancy services—was significantly greater than the export of goods. The tourist industry also plays an important role in the Swedish economy.

Labour and taxation

      Employment in agriculture, forestry, and fishing has declined since the mid-20th century. Employment in industry reached a peak in 1960, but the tertiary sector (including services and administration) has become the main growth area, with the expanding public sector one of its major components. However, an economic downturn in the 1990s resulted in the elimination of many of these jobs. About one-tenth of county and municipal jobs were lost in 1990–97; however, this trend has reversed somewhat in the early years of the 21st century, when more than one-fourth of the Swedish workforce was employed in the public sector. Private-sector production growth during the 1990s and early 2000s was largely due to increased employee hours worked and higher production per employee.

      In order to address the problem of unemployment, the government made large investments in education and entrepreneurship. The public sector has played an important role in increasing productivity and participation in the workforce. Since the early 1990s there has been a push to encourage the full workforce participation of parents of preschoolers, by publicly funding preschool and child care resources. Working hours have increased, especially by women, and by the mid-2000s parents of young children had the same number of hours worked per week as other employees.

      In Sweden three-fourths of working-age women participate in the workforce, a rate that is among the highest in the world. Sweden has among the lowest wage differentials in the world: women earn on average more than nine-tenths of full-time pay for men. However, only about two-thirds of working women have full-time jobs, while more than nine-tenths of working men do. Only a very small percentage of Swedish women are full-time homemakers.

      Sweden is noted for its liberal employee benefit (fringe benefit) plans. The normal statutory workweek is 40 hours, but 37 hours per week is the de facto norm. The minimum amount of annual paid vacation is five weeks. In addition, there are other legal grounds for paid absence. Sweden is well known for its maternity and parental leave schemes that allow up to 13 months' leave at about four-fifths of their pay. Employers pay additional fees of more than two-fifths of gross wages for statutory social benefits, including pensions. As of 1999, a new general pension system was introduced, which allowed individuals to invest a portion of their contribution while linking payments to general economic growth and cohort life-expectancy.

      Sweden is highly unionized (organized labour), with about four-fifths of all workers belonging to trade unions. Workers are organized into three main groups: the Swedish Trade Union Confederation, the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees, and the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations. Most private-sector employers belong to the Confederation of Swedish Enterprise, which was formed in 2001 after the merger of the Swedish Employers Confederation and the Federation of Swedish Industries.

      Taxes make up the overwhelming majority of state revenues, which are used to maintain a high level of social services that have virtually eliminated structural poverty in the country. Sweden has a relatively high rate of personal income tax (ranging from about 30 to 50 percent), but taxes for businesses are quite moderate. Since the late 1990s there has been a shift away from tax on personal income and capital gains and toward taxing goods and services and social security contributions. These shifts grew out of policy changes first implemented in the 1990s to stimulate work and savings by cutting the marginal tax rates on earned income. Social insurance policies have been changed to encourage greater participation in the workforce, and pension reforms have been introduced that clearly link the amount paid into the pension system and the amount disbursed with the overall health of the economy.

Transportation and telecommunications

      Sweden has an extensive network of overland and air transport routes. In earlier centuries sea transport was dominant, land transport being carried on chiefly in winter, over snow and ice. Göteborg and Stockholm are among the most important of some 20 ports handling foreign trade. The forest industry adjacent to the Norrland coast has its own harbours, which in winter are dependent on icebreaker services. The Swedish merchant fleet has been drastically reduced by competition from foreign ships charging lower rates. Ferry traffic between Sweden and its neighbours has grown tremendously and increasingly employs larger and more luxurious ferryboats.

 In the first half of the 19th century a number of inland waterways, among them the Göta Canal, were constructed. They soon became obsolete, however, as the state began in the 1850s to build the national railway network. Sweden soon ranked among the foremost countries in per capita mileage of railroads. Railroads in their turn met competition from the automobile, and since the 1950s many secondary rail lines have been closed. The centuries-old road network was rapidly expanded in the 20th century, and ever-better roads were built. Highways ran between Stockholm, Göteborg, and Malmö and connected the capital to the northern coastal region. Most households own at least one car. Local public bus transportation is well developed, but only Stockholm has a subway as the backbone of its local transportation system. Göteborg has developed a tram system.

      Air services are dominated by the Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), which is owned chiefly by the states of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. The interests of SAS are concentrated on international aviation, but, directly and indirectly, it also dominates domestic service. The most important airports are in Stockholm, Göteborg, and Malmö.

      The interests of the state in transportation and communications are wide. The railways are owned and run by the state, which also maintains bus traffic on a large scale.

      As the telecommunications industry has grown in Sweden, so too have telecommunications improved, and the country is among the world's leaders in Internet penetration, with a great majority of Swedes having online access.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

 Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. The constitution, dating from 1809 and revised in 1975, is based on the following four fundamental laws: the Instrument of Government, the Act of Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act, and the Riksdag (Parliament) Act. All the laws have been subject to amendment. The constitution is based on the principles of popular sovereignty, representative democracy, and parliamentarism.

      The reigning monarch is the head of state but exerts no political power; the responsibilities of the monarch are ceremonial only. Succession is accorded to the firstborn child regardless of sex. The prime minister is nominated by the speaker of the Riksdag after consultations with party leaders and must be approved for office through a vote of the Riksdag. The prime minister appoints the other cabinet members. The cabinet is responsible for all government decisions.

      The ministries are small, and they are not concerned with details of administration or implementation of legislation. This is handled by central administrative agencies, whose senior officials are appointed by the cabinet.

      In the preparation of important measures to be considered by the government, the responsible minister normally calls upon a commission of inquiry to appraise the measure. The commission may often include politicians from opposition parties, representatives of labour, and scientists and civil servants. They produce a printed report that is sent to various agencies and organizations for official comments before it is presented as background material to government legislation.

      The Riksdag, a unicameral parliament elected by the people for four-year terms, is the foundation for the democratic exercise of power through the cabinet. The Riksdag appoints its speaker, deputy speakers, and standing committees, in which parties are represented in proportion to their strength. All bills are referred to committees; the results of their deliberations are reported in printed form to the Riksdag in plenary session.

      The Riksdag may call for a consultative (nonbinding) referendum on various issues; decisive (binding) referenda may be held on amendments to the constitution if demanded by one-third of the Riksdag.

Local government

      Local government is allocated to the kommuner (municipalities), each with an elected assembly and the right to levy income taxes and to charge fees for various services. Municipalities have a strong independent position. Streets, sewerage, water supply, schools, public assistance, child welfare, housing, and care for elderly people are among their responsibilities. Elections coincide with parliamentary elections.

      Between the national and municipal government is a regional tier of 21 län (counties) headed by a county governor, appointed by the national government. Each county also has an elected council that has the right to levy income tax and that administers health care, certain educational and vocational training, and regional transport.

Justice

      The National Law Code of 1734 is still in force, although almost none of its original text remains. In modern times, moreover, a mass of special legislation has grown outside the code to cover new needs. Roman law has had less influence in Sweden than in most European countries. Since the end of the 19th century, much civil law has been prepared in collaboration with the other Nordic countries.

      Primary responsibility for the enforcement of law devolves upon the courts and the administrative authorities. Sweden has a three-tiered hierarchy of courts: the district courts (tingsrätter), the intermediate courts of appeal (hovrätter), and the Supreme Court (högsta domstolen). District courts play the dominant role. A peculiar feature of these courts is a panel of lay assessors (nämndemän), who take part in the main hearings, primarily on more serious criminal and family cases. In such cases, the bench consists of a legally trained judge as chairman and three lay assessors. These panels are not to be confused with an Anglo-American or continental type of jury.

      In the six courts of appeal (the oldest one established in 1614), cases are decided by three or four judges. Appeals against their decisions can be carried to the Supreme Court only if the case is deemed important to the interpretation of law. In the Supreme Court the bench consists of five justices (justitieråd).

      Legal aid is provided for anyone who wants it. The general penalties for convictions are fines and imprisonment. Fines are set in proportion to the person's daily income. Offenders under 18 years of age are sentenced to prison only in exceptional cases.

      The decisions of administrative authorities, which cannot be appealed to an ordinary court of justice, can be appealed to higher administrative authorities and ultimately to the government or to administrative courts, such as county administrative courts (länsrätter) in matters of taxation. Higher administrative courts of appeal are called kammarrätter. The highest administrative tribunal is the Supreme Administrative Court (regeringsrätten), which tries cases involving such issues as taxation, insanity, alcoholism, and juvenile delinquency.

      The Labour Court (Arbetsdomstolen) is a special body that deals with controversies in the interpretation and application of collective bargaining agreements. Of its seven members, two represent labour and two represent management.

      The Office of the Parliamentary ombudsman (Justitieombudsman) is an original Swedish institution, established in 1809; it has become a model for similar offices in other countries. The ombudsman's chief duty is to see that the courts and civil service enforce the laws properly, especially those laws that safeguard the freedom, security, and property of citizens. They have the power to institute prosecutions in court and, in particular, to act against officials who abuse their powers or act illegally. Other ombudsmen are not appointed by the Riksdag but have similar duties of surveillance in other areas. Thus, there are an antitrust ombudsman, a consumer ombudsman, an equal-opportunities ombudsman, and an ethnic-discrimination ombudsman.

      The chancellor of justice (justitiekansler) is a government appointee who supervises courts and administrative organs with particular concern for safeguarding the state's interests.

Political process

      All citizens of Sweden who are 18 years of age or older may vote in elections. Members of the parliament must be Swedish citizens and of voting age. Representation by party is in strict proportion to the national vote. A quota rule excludes parties with less than 4 percent of the national vote or 12 percent of the votes in at least one electoral district. Only in 1919, after decades of work by Elin Wägner and other dedicated suffragettes, were women in Sweden first able to vote in general elections, and not until 1921 could women vote in all elections. Five women entered the Swedish parliament as a result of that election; at the beginning of the 21st century, nearly half of the members of the parliament were women.

      Historically, the political party system in Sweden has been relatively stable. Prominent parties include three nonsocialist parties—the Moderate Party (formerly the Conservative Party), the Centre Party, and the Liberal Party—and two socialist parties—the Swedish Social Democratic Workers' Party (SAP; commonly called the Social Democratic Labour Party (Swedish Social Democratic Party)) and the Left Party (former Communist Party). The SAP is closely allied with the trade unions and was in power for a considerable part of the 20th century (1932–76 [except briefly in 1936] and 1982–91). At the end of the century and into the 21st century, power alternated between the Social Democrats and the Moderates.

Security

      Sweden has not been under military occupation since the 16th century or been at war since 1814. Until joining the European Union (EU) in 1995, Sweden actively avoided all military alliances through a policy of detachment or neutrality. As a member of the EU, Sweden fully participates in the organization's foreign and security policy.

      To safeguard its neutrality and to protect its territory, Sweden maintains a strong military consisting of an army, a navy, and an air force. Conscription is compulsory for all males age 19 and over. Depending on the branch and role assigned, conscription time lasts from 7 to 17 months. After this initial service, men up to age 47 have a commitment to serve in the reserves.

      Sweden actively supports international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and takes an energetic role in resolving security issues through this organ. Together with the other Nordic countries, Sweden has worked to develop and reinforce UN peacekeeping operations. Since multilateral disarmament negotiations began in Switzerland in 1962, Sweden also has been key player in international efforts to control and restrict transfers of conventional arms, to enforce the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons, chemical and biological weapons, and missile technology, and to achieve a total ban on antipersonnel mines.

      Sweden's national police service is responsible to the Ministry of Justice and includes the National Police Board, the National Security Service, the National Criminal Investigation Department, the National Laboratory of Forensic Science, and the county police authorities. Women make up one-third of all police employees and about one-fifth of police officers.

Health and welfare

      In return for high taxes, Swedes are provided with a broad spectrum of public services and social welfare benefits that guarantee a minimum living standard, provide aid in emergencies, and narrow the gap between income groups. All residents are covered by national health insurance administered by the counties.

      Health conditions in Sweden are among the best in the world. Infant mortality is low, and the average life expectancy at birth is high. Sweden has one of the world's oldest populations, with a significant slice of the population age 65 or over. The ratio of doctors to population is also relatively high. Primary health care centres are available in every community. For highly specialized health care, Sweden has several major hospitals, which generally have affiliated medical schools. The county councils (and the local authority in the case of Gotland) are responsibility for providing health services.

      Extremely liberal benefits are available to parents. They are entitled to 13 months of paid family leave from work, which can be shared between them before a child is age 8. They also receive tax-free child allowances, equal for everyone, until a child's 16th birthday. Students who continue their education are entitled to study allowances. At the university level the majority of student funding consists of repayable loans. Municipalities provide an increasing number of day-care and youth activities.

      National accident insurance pays all medical costs for on-the-job injuries. Many working people in Sweden have unemployment insurance through their trade unions, while the unemployed without such coverage can receive a smaller cash benefit from the state. There are extensive government programs for job retraining and sheltered employment (jobs reserved for disabled workers), as well as relocation grants to help the unemployed find work. A basic old-age pension is available to everyone starting at age 65. The state also pays an income-related supplementary pension financed through a payroll plan.

Housing

      Today, Swedish cities are generally noted for their efficient planning and lack of slums. Up until the 1930s, however, Sweden's housing standards were low compared with those of other European countries. Many dwellings lacked basic sanitation and were overcrowded. In the 1940s the central government addressed these concerns through housing policy by subsidizing rents and instituting rent control. In the post-World War II period, the Swedish government oversaw a new focus on the general improvement of housing standards. Housing subsidies were introduced for the poor and elderly pensioners. From the late 1940s through the 1950s, most municipalities founded their own housing companies. Low-interest loans and interest subsides were provided by the state to these nonprofit companies.

      In the 1950s and '60s, as the baby boom began, the ‘‘Million Home Program " was instituted to provide a higher standard of housing throughout the country. The goal was to build one million new dwellings, to be occupied by no more than two people per room, not counting the kitchen and living room. This began a policy of state responsibility for the legislation and funding of housing construction, with the municipalities charged with planning and implementation. In the 1970s the construction of single-family houses increased and rent control ended. The housing improvement schemes of the 1980s modernized much of the housing stock, and new projects mushroomed through 1990, a year in which nearly 70,000 units were built.

      The economic crisis of the 1990s and the systematic dismantling of many of the iconic features of the welfare state led to a dramatic change in Sweden's housing policy. Construction dwindled at this time as subsidized housing schemes were eliminated in favour of housing allowances or supplements. As the effects of the 1990s depression subsided, the government attempted to address housing problems in the first decade of the 21st century by investing in projects meant to stimulate the construction of new housing, particularly that of smaller apartments. The government also worked with private builders and municipal housing authorities to ensure a sustainable stock of high-quality housing that was both environmentally sensitive and affordable.

      In the early 21st century, more than half of Swedish households lived in apartments, while the remainder lived in houses. At the turn of the century, the average Swedish household spent about one-fourth of its disposable income on rent. Housing stock is not evenly distributed throughout the country. In some regions, such as the greater Stockholm area, housing is at a premium, while in other smaller and medium-sized communities, there is a surplus of housing stock.

      On average, just over two Swedes live in each dwelling. Approximately two-fifths of the housing stock is owner-occupied; nearly half is rental; and the remainder is owned by cooperative tenant owners. Sweden is the only country where the predominant colour of houses is red.

Education

      The education system is, with few exceptions, public and open to all without fees. Primary schools are run by the municipalities, as are the secondary schools. Universities and colleges are administered by the state, but they have been given far-reaching autonomy in the use of resources. Academic freedom is carefully guarded by faculty and students alike.

      All municipalities must provide preschool classes. Parents may choose whether or not to send their children, and the great majority does participate. Parents and pupils have the choice of free municipal schools as well as independent schools, which may charge tuition. Only a very small percentage of all Swedish children attend private or independent schools. The comprehensive school (grundskola) is compulsory for nine years. Children are required to attend school between the ages of 7 and 16. Compulsory education is free, and no charge is made for school lunches, transportation, or educational materials. The comprehensive school is divided into three-year stages: lower, middle, and upper. Each school may decide when English and other foreign languages are introduced, but all must meet the same standards by grade 5. About one-third of all schools begin English instruction in grade 1. From the seventh year the curriculum is divided into different lines chosen by the pupils themselves. Special education is given to all pupils suffering from physical or mental handicaps.

      Nearly all of the pupils continue from comprehensive school to the upper secondary school. The curriculum in this school (gymnasieskola) is divided between several theoretical programs, which are university-oriented, and a variety of vocationally oriented programs. Certain core subjects are common to all programs.

      Marks, or grades, are given in comprehensive school starting in the eighth year. In the upper secondary school grades are given each term. About half of all young people in Sweden go on to higher studies within five years of completing upper secondary school.

      Sweden has about a dozen major universities and some 20 university-colleges. The oldest is the Uppsala University, founded in 1477. Other universities are located in Lund, Stockholm, Göteborg, Umeå, Linköping, Karlstad and Växjö. Sweden is also home to other world-renowned institutions, including the Karolinska Institute (medicine) in Stockholm and the Chalmers University of Technology. Education is free of charge; students pay no tuition. Courses are typically taught in Swedish, but course literature is often in English. An increasing number of courses are also offered in English.

      Continuing and adult education are important features of the Swedish education system. Adult education outside the public school system is offered at the many Folk High Schools, a uniquely Scandinavian educational institution. Also characteristic are the nationwide voluntary education associations. About half of Sweden's adult population pursues studies in one form or another. Since 1968 municipalities have offered courses for adults covering the three upper grades of comprehensive school and upper secondary school. University courses also are open to all age groups. Distance learning—including radio and television courses, as well as Internet and correspondence courses—is popular and especially useful for persons who reside far from educational centres.

Cultural life

Cultural milieu

      Sweden's cultural heritage is an interweaving of a uniquely Swedish sensibility with ideas and impulses taken from other, larger cultures. As a result, Swedish culture has long been characterized by a push and pull. Swedish art, poetry, literature, music, textiles, dance, and design are deeply infused with a primal relationship with the Nordic landscape and climate, but Swedes also have long been attracted to the greatness of the cultures of such countries as France and Germany, and influences from these and other European cultures have contributed to the development of Swedish literature, fashion, and cultural debate, as well as to the Swedish language itself.

      As Swedish political influence grew, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, so did a desire among prominent Swedes for their country to take a place at centre stage with other important European cultures. This refusal to be classified as a cultural backwater remains a strong force today. At the same time, simplicity is a hallmark of Swedish culture, as is openness to new thoughts and trends. There is also a sense of wit and playfulness combined with candor and sincerity that is apparent not only in the works of Swedish cultural icons such as Selma Lagerlöf (Lagerlöf, Selma), August Strindberg (Strindberg, August), Ingmar Bergman (Bergman, Ingmar), Astrid Lindgren (Lindgren, Astrid), and Carl Larsson but also in Swedish folk music and folk art.

      War-weary and largely nonaligned since the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, Sweden embraced a neutrality and peacefulness that permitted the state in the 20th century to broadly support arts and culture politically, educationally, and economically. During the last half of the 20th century, Sweden welcomed immigrants and refugees who brought with them their own cultural traditions, which have informed the broader Swedish culture. The effects of American popular culture have also been widely felt in Sweden. A rebirth of contemporary Swedish creativity has attracted worldwide attention both in those art forms in which Swedes have traditionally thrived—literature and film—and in design, popular music, photography, fashion, gastronomy, and textiles.

Daily life and social customs

 Genuine rural folk traditions are disappearing in urban areas as a result of increasing settlement; however, since the 1990s there has been a resurgence of interest in those traditions among many Swedes who live in towns and cities. Still vital in Gotland, Dalarna, and various other areas are special national costumes, dances, folk music, and the like. Spring is celebrated on the last night of April with bonfires and song across the country. This is a great students' festival in university towns such as Uppsala and Lund. The bright Midsummer Eve (Midsummer's Eve) is celebrated around June 24, about the time of the year's longest day (see solstice). In the ceremony a large pole, decorated with flowers and leaves, is placed into the ground and danced around. Some celebrations have a religious association: Advent, St. Lucia's Day, Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. Pagan elements are still sometimes evident in these holiday ceremonies. The Lucia candlelights are a relatively recent but very popular custom performed for St. Lucia's Day on the morning of December 13, at almost the darkest time of year; the ceremony features a “Light Queen,” who, wearing a white gown and a crown of lighted candles, represents the returning sun.

      Immigration, travels abroad, and imports have changed and internationalized the Swedish cuisine. However, the original Swedish buffet of appetizers known as a smörgåsbord (smorgasbord) remains a national favourite. The typical Swedish kitchen reflects the harsh northern climate, with fresh food available only during the short but intense summer season. In the words of the mother of Swedish cuisine, 18th-century cook Cajsa Warg, “You take what you get.” Swedish culinary traditions reflect the importance of being able to preserve and store food for the winter. Lutefisk (dried cod soaked in water and lye so it swells), pickled herring, lingonberries (which keep well without preservatives), knäckebröd (crispbread), and fermented or preserved dairy products such as the yogurtlike fil, the stringy långfil, and cheeses all reflect this need for foods that will keep through the colder parts of the year. Twisted saffron-scented buns called lussekatter and heart-shaped gingersnaps are served along with coffee in the early morning. Christmas is celebrated on December 24 with the traditional Julskinka ham. Glogg, a mulled, spiced wine, is also enjoyed during this season.

The arts

      J.H. Roman, an 18th-century composer, has been called the father of Swedish music, but the Romantic composer Franz Berwald (Berwald, Franz) received wider acclaim for his 19th-century symphonies and other works. Notable 20th-century composers include the “Monday group,” who were inspired by the antiromantic Hilding Rosenberg in the 1920s and drew also upon leading modern composers from abroad. The vital Swedish folk song has been developed further by a number of musicians. The lively and often moving ballads and ‘‘epistles " of Carl Michael Bellman (Bellman, Carl Michael), an 18th-century skald, are still widely performed and enjoyed in contemporary Sweden. A number of Swedish opera singers, among them Jenny Lind (Lind, Jenny), Jussi Björling (Björling, Jussi), and Birgit Nilsson (Nilsson, Birgit), gained renown throughout the world. Popular music, especially the Europop of the internationally celebrated group Abba, and music production, editing, and advertising were major Swedish exports from the late 1970s on..

      Few names in Swedish literature were well known internationally until the 19th century, when the writings of August Strindberg (Strindberg, August) won worldwide acclaim. He is still generally considered the country's greatest writer. In the early 20th century, novelist Selma Lagerlöf (Lagerlöf, Selma) became the first Swedish writer to win the Nobel Prize. A favourite poet in Sweden is Harry Martinson (Martinson, Harry), who, writing in the 1930s, cultivated themes and motifs ranging from the romantic Swedish countryside to those concerned with global and cosmic visions. Other poets such as Karin Boye (Boye, Karin) and Tomas Tranströmer (Tranströmer, Tomas) have international reputations. In contemporary Swedish literature such authors as Kerstin Ekman, P.C. Jersild, Lars Gustafsson, Sara Lidman (Lidman, Sara), Canadian-born Sven Delblanc (Delblanc, Sven), Henning Mankell, and Mikael Niemi have found a wide audience. One of the most widely published and translated modern Swedish writers is Astrid Lindgren (Lindgren, Astrid), noted for her children's books, including the famous Pippi Longstocking series. (For more information on Swedish literature, see the article Scandinavian literature.)

 Swedish theatre, opera, and ballet are multifaceted. Birgit Cullberg attained international fame as director of the Swedish Royal Ballet in Stockholm. The Swedish cinema was pioneered in the silent and early sound eras by actor-director Victor Sjöström (Sjöström, Victor). Like Sjöström, director Ingmar Bergman (Bergman, Ingmar) moved from the stage to motion pictures, gaining critical acclaim outside Sweden with his film Wild Strawberries (1957). Subsequently, as many of both his earlier and later films became classics of international cinema, Bergman was hailed as one of the most important filmmakers of all time. Among other Swedes who have made major contributions to the art of filmmaking are actors Greta Garbo (Garbo, Greta), Ingrid Bergman (Bergman, Ingrid), Bibi Andersson (Andersson, Bibi), and Max von Sydow (Sydow, Max von), cinematographer-director Sven Nykvist (Nykvist, Sven), and director Lasse Hallström. In the last decades of the 20th century, Lars Norén shouldered the mantle of Sweden's national dramatist.

      Modern Swedish visual art was inspired by late 19th-century romantic nationalism, originating with such painters as Carl Larsson, Anders Zorn (Zorn, Anders), and Bruno Liljefors. Carl Milles (Milles, Carl) dominated monumental sculpture in the 1920s. At the Paris World's Fair in 1925, an important connection was established between Swedish industry and designers who had both academic art education and popular handicraft tradition. Superb results have been achieved in ceramics, woodwork, textiles, silver, and stainless steel. Sweden is also renowned for its leadership in glass and furniture design. Many famous glass designers such as Bertil Vallien, Ingegerd Råman, and Ulrica Hydman-Vallien (part of the Orrefors Kosta Boda group) and independent glass artists such as Ulla Forsell, Mårten Medbo, and Frida Fjellman have won international acclaim. Moreover, Sweden has been a world leader in industrial design, blending sound ergonomics, aesthetics, and high functionality. IKEA, perhaps Sweden's best-known company, disseminates design in a thoroughly “Swedish” way all over the world.

Cultural institutions

      The country's cultural institutions are subsidized through state funding. Cultural activities reach all parts of the country through traveling companies devoted to theatre, concerts, and exhibitions. Despite state support, the majority of these cultural offerings are also dependent on private funding.

      Every municipality has a public library where books are loaned free of charge. The libraries are often centres for other cultural events as well. Scientific libraries, including the largest ones, like the University of Uppsala library and the Royal Library, are also open to the public. Sweden has one of the highest library lending rates in the world.

      There are about 300 museums and local heritage centres in Sweden. About 20 museums are run by the state; most of them are national museums in Stockholm. Besides the national museums for art, history, natural history, and folklore, the open-air Skansen historical park (founded in 1891) enjoys worldwide interest. In addition, there are county museums with regional responsibility. Sweden has a number of institutional theatres, including Stockholm's Royal Opera and Royal Dramatic Theatre, both of which have held performances since the 1780s.

      Several major professional symphony orchestras and chamber orchestras, along with many smaller musical institutions, form the backbone of musical life. The state supports the production of literature, films, and sound recordings, as well as art for public buildings.

      Learned societies play an important role as independent promoters of arts and sciences. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, founded in 1739, is engaged in worldwide cooperative programs. It also selects Nobel laureates in chemistry and physics. The Nobel Prize for Literature is awarded by the Swedish Academy, which was inaugurated together with the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities by King Gustav III (Gustav III) in 1786. The Nobel Prize award ceremony, held on December 10 each year, is the single most heralded annual event held in Sweden. It is arranged by the Nobel Foundation, which administers the funds and other properties from the estate of Alfred Nobel (Nobel, Alfred Bernhard), who died in 1896.

Sports and recreation

      Swedes are very interested in sports, with nearly one-half of the country's inhabitants belonging to sports clubs. Outdoor recreation is important throughout the year. Facilities for mountain hiking were developed by the Swedish Touring Club about the end of the 19th century. Sweden is one of the foremost countries in winter sports, and facilities for skiing in particular have developed rapidly. Åre is a major centre of winter sports. Sweden has produced several notable skiing champions, including Ingemar Stenmark (Stenmark, Ingemar) (Alpine) and Sixten Jernberg (Jernberg, Sixten) (Nordic), as well as figure skating innovator Gillis Grafström (Grafström, Gillis). In competitive sports, other than winter events, football (soccer) and gymnastics are highly developed. Stockholm hosted the highly successful 1912 Olympic Games (Olympic Games), which included the legendary performance of American decathlete Jim Thorpe (Thorpe, Jim). Swedes have also made international reputations in tennis and golf, most notably Björn Borg (Borg, Björn) and Annika Sörenstam. Traditional games include kubb, a form of lawn skittles, said to have been played in Sweden since Viking times.

Media and publishing

      Freedom of the press in Sweden dates back to 1766, and the current Freedom of the Press Act dates from 1949. State censorship of the press as well as other serious restrictions of the publication and distribution of printed matter are forbidden. The law also prohibits the investigation or disclosure of a newspaper reporter's sources except in cases of high treason, espionage, or other related serious crimes.

      The principle that every citizen should have access to virtually all documents kept by state or municipal agencies was introduced in 1766. Few other countries have emulated Sweden in providing this guarantee. The right of access is guarded by the parliamentary ombudsman.

      In 1969 the office of the press ombudsman was established to supervise adherence to ethical standards in the press. Sweden ranks high among countries in newspaper circulation, although the number of newspapers has declined sharply since the mid-20th century. State subsidies are paid in order to ensure that there will be competitive newspapers to provide balanced news coverage. The major dailies often express the viewpoint of a specific political party. They include Expressen (liberal, Stockholm), Dagens Nyheter (independent, Stockholm), Aftonbladet (social democratic, Stockholm), Göteborgs-Posten (liberal, Göteborg), Svenska Dagbladet (independent moderate, Stockholm), Sydsvenska Dagbladet (independent liberal, Malmö), and Arbetet (social democratic, Malmö). Sweden is also home to the oldest continuously published newspaper in the world, the Post-och Inrikes Tidningar; although published only on the Internet since the early 2000s, it has been available daily since 1645.

      Radio and television broadcasting is monopolized under public supervision. A government-appointed Broadcasting Commission reviews program activities to ensure that standards of objectivity and impartiality are met. Radio and television programming is financed from license revenues. Regular radio broadcasting began in 1925 and television in 1956.

Staffan Helmfrid Susan Ruth Larson

History

Earliest settlements

      The thick ice cap that covered Sweden during the last glacial period began to recede in the southern region about 14,000 years ago. About 12,000 years later the earliest hunters in the region began following migratory paths behind the retreating ice field. The stratified clay deposits that were left annually by the melting ice have been studied systematically by Swedish geologists, who have developed a dependable system of geochronology that verifies the dates of the thaw. The first traces of human life in Sweden, dating from about 9000 BC, were found at Segebro outside Malmö in the extreme southern reaches of Sweden. Finds from the peat at Ageröd in Skåne dated to 6500 BC reveal a typical food-gathering culture with tools of flint and primitive hunting and fishing equipment, such as the bow and arrow and the fishing spear. New tribes, practicing agriculture (agriculture, origins of) and cattle raising, made their appearance about 2500 BC, and soon afterward a peasant culture with good continental communications was flourishing in what are now the provinces of Skåne, Halland, Bohuslän, and Västergötland. The so-called Boat-Ax culture (an outlier of the European Battle-Ax cultures) arrived about 2000 BC and spread rapidly. During the Neolithic Period, southern and central Sweden displayed the aspects of a homogeneous culture, with central European trade links; in northern Sweden the hunting culture persisted throughout the Stone and Bronze ages (Bronze Age).

      Settlers became familiar with copper and bronze around 1500 BC. Information about Sweden's Bronze Age has been obtained by studying rock carvings and relics of the period, as, for example, the ornate weapons of chieftains and other decorative items preserved in the earth. The early Bronze Age (c. 1500–1000 BC) was also characterized by strong continental trade links, notably with the Danube River basin. Stone Age burial customs (skeleton sepulture, megalithic monuments) were gradually replaced by cremation. Rock carvings suggest a sun cult and fertility rites. Upheavals on the continent, combined with Celtic expansion, seem to have interrupted (c. 500 BC) bronze imports to Scandinavia, and a striking poverty of finds characterizes the next few centuries. The climate, comparatively mild since the Neolithic Period, deteriorated, necessitating new farming methods. At this time, iron reached the north.

      For the early Iron Age (c. 400 BC–c. AD 1) the finds are also relatively scanty, showing only sporadic contacts with the La Tène culture, but they become more abundant from the Roman Iron Age (c. AD 1–400) onward. The material from this period shows that Sweden had developed a culture of its own, although naturally reflecting external influences.

      Trade links between the Roman Empire (ancient Rome) and Scandinavia gave Rome some knowledge of Sweden. The Germania (written AD 98) of Tacitus gives the first description of the Svear, or Suiones (Swedes), stated to be powerful in men, weapons, and fleets. Other ancient writers who mention Scandinavia are Ptolemy, Jordanes, and Procopius.

The Viking Age

      At the beginning of this period a number of independent tribes were settled in what is now Sweden, and their districts are still partly indicated by the present divisions of the country. The Swedes were centred in Uppland, around Uppsala. Farther south the Gotär lived in the agricultural lands of Östergötland and Västergötland. The absence of historical sources makes it impossible to trace the long process by which these provinces were formed into a united and independent state. The historical events leading to unification are reflected darkly in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf—which gives the earliest known version of the word sveorice, svearike, sverige (Sweden)—and also in the Old Norse epic Ynglingatal, contained in the Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson.

Trade (international trade)

      As a result of Arab expansion in the Mediterranean area in the 8th and 9th centuries, the trade routes along the Russian rivers to the Baltic Sea acquired enhanced importance. In the second half of the 9th century, Swedish peasant chieftains secured a firm foothold in what is now western Russia and Ukraine and ruthlessly exploited the Slav population. From their strongholds, which included the river towns of Novgorod and Kiev, they controlled the trade routes along the Dnieper (Dnieper River) to the Black Sea and Constantinople (now Istanbul) and along the Volga (Volga River) to the Caspian Sea and the East. Trade in slaves and furs was particularly lucrative, as the rich finds of Arab silver coins in Swedish soil demonstrate. Swedish Vikings (Viking) also controlled trade across the Baltic; and it was for this activity that Birka, generally regarded as Sweden's oldest town, was founded (c. 800). Swedish Vikings took part in raids against western Europe as well. From the 10th century, however, control of the Russian market began to slip from Swedish hands into those of Frisian, German, and Gotland merchants.

Lennart T. Norman Jörgen Weibull

Christianization (Christianity)

      The first attempt to Christianize Sweden was made by the Frankish monk Ansgar (Ansgar, Saint) in 830. He was allowed to preach and set up a church in Birka, but the Swedes showed little interest. A second Frankish missionary was forced to flee. In the 930s another archbishop of Hamburg, Unni, undertook a new mission, with as little success as his predecessors. In Västergötland to the southwest, Christianity, introduced mainly by English missionaries, was more generally accepted during the 11th century. In central Sweden, however, the temple at Uppsala provided a stronghold for pagan resistance, and it was not until the temple was pulled down at the end of the 11th century that Sweden was successfully Christianized.

      The struggle between the old and new religions strongly affected the political life of Sweden in the 11th century. Olaf (Olof Skötkonung), who came from Västergötland but proclaimed himself ruler of all Sweden during the early 11th century, was baptized in Skara about the year 1000. He supported the new religion, as did his sons Anund Jakob (reigned c. 1022–c. 1050) and Edmund (c. 1050–60). The missionaries (mission) from Norway, Denmark, and even Russia and France, as well as from Hamburg, won converts, especially in Götaland, the area where the royal dynasty made its home and where early English missionaries had prepared the ground. Many pagans refused to abandon their old faith, however, and civil wars and feuds continued. Claimants vied for the throne until the mid-13th century, when a stable monarchy was finally achieved.

The 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries

      When and where Sweden originated have long been matters of debate. Some historians contend that the cradle of Sweden is located in Västergötland and Östergötland—i.e., in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the country. Others maintain that Sweden was founded in the Lake Mälar (Mälar, Lake) region in Uppland by the Svear, who subjugated the central provinces and eventually conquered the provinces of Götaland. Evidence indicates, however, that, at the end of the Viking era in the 11th century, Sweden remained a loose federation of provinces. The local chieftains from time to time proclaimed themselves rulers over all Sweden, when in reality each formally exerted power only over his own province. It appears that the Swedish provinces were first united in the 12th century. The oldest document in which Sweden is referred to as a united and independent kingdom is a papal decree, by which Sweden in 1164 became a diocese with its own archbishop in Uppsala.

      Sweden in the 12th century consisted of Svealand and Götaland, which were united into a single kingdom during the first half of that century, while the provinces of Skåne, Halland, and Blekinge in the south belonged to Denmark; Bohuslän in the west, along with Jämtland and Härjedalen in the north, were part of Norway. About 1130 Sverker, a member of a magnate family from Östergötland, was acknowledged as king, and this province now became the political centre of Sweden. Sverker sided with the church and established several cloisters staffed by French monks; he was murdered about 1156. During the later years of Sverker's reign, a pretender named Erik Jedvardsson was proclaimed king in Svealand; little is known about Erik, but according to legend he undertook a crusade to Finland, died violently about 1160, and was later canonized as the patron saint of Sweden.

Civil wars

      Erik's son Knut killed Sverker's son (1167) and was accepted as king of the entire country. Knut organized the currency system, worked for the organization of the church, and established a fortress on the site of Stockholm. After his death in 1196, members of the families of Erik and Sverker succeeded each other on the throne for half a century. While the families were battling for the throne, the archbishopric at Uppsala was established, and the country was organized into five bishoprics. The church received the right to administer justice according to canon law and a separate system of taxation, protected by royal privileges, and the pretenders sought the church's sanction for their candidacies. The first known coronation by the archbishop was that of Erik Knutsson in 1210. The church also gave its sanction to the “crusades” against Finland and the eastern Baltic coast; the action combined an attempt at Christianization with an attempt at conquering the areas.

      By the mid-13th century the civil wars were drawing to an end. The most important figure in Sweden at that time was Birger Jarl, a magnate of the Folkung family. The jarls (count) (earls) organized the military affairs of the eastern provinces and commanded the expeditions abroad. Birger was appointed jarl in 1248 by the last member of the family of St. Erik, Erik Eriksson, to whose sister he was married. Birger's eldest son, Valdemar (Valdemar Birgersson), was elected king when Erik died (1250). After Birger defeated the rebellious magnates, he assisted his son in the government of the country and gave fiefs to his younger sons. Birger was in fact ruler of the country until he died in 1266. During this time central power was strengthened by royal acts that were binding throughout Sweden, in spite of the existence of local laws in the provinces. The acts promulgated included those giving increased protection to women, the church, and the thing (“courts”) and improving the inheritance rights of women. By a treaty with Lübeck in 1252, Birger promoted the growth of the newly founded city of Stockholm. At the same time, the Hanseatic (Hanseatic League) merchants received privileges in Sweden, and the establishment of towns blossomed.

      In 1275 Valdemar was overthrown by his brother Magnus I (Magnus Ladulås (Magnus I)) with the help of a Danish army. In 1280 a law was accepted establishing freedom from taxes for magnates who served as members of the king's cavalry, creating a hereditary nobility; the following year Magnus Ladulås exempted the property of the church from all taxes. Under Magnus's reign the position of jarl disappeared and was replaced by the drots (a kind of vice king) and the marsk (marshall), together with the established kansler (chancellor). The export of silver, copper, and iron from Sweden increased trade relations with Europe, especially with the Hanseatic cities.

      Magnus died in 1290 and was succeeded by his 10-year-old son, Birger (Birger Magnusson). The regency was dominated by the magnates, especially by the marsk, Torgils Knutsson; even after Birger's coronation in 1302, Torgils retained much of his power. The king's younger brothers Erik and Valdemar, who were made dukes, attempted to establish their own policies and were forced to flee to Norway (1304), where they received support from the Norwegian king; the following year the three brothers were reconciled. A new political faction was created by the leaders of the church, whom Torgils had repressed, together with a group of nobles and the dukes, and in 1306 the marsk was executed. Birger then issued a new letter of privileges for the church, but his brothers captured and imprisoned him. Two years later the kings of Denmark and Norway attacked Sweden on his behalf. Birger was again recognized king of Sweden at a peace concluded in 1310 with Denmark and Norway, but he was forced to transfer half of the kingdom to his brothers as fiefs. Erik's territory, together with his earlier acquisitions, then consisted of western Sweden, northern Halland, southern Bohuslän, and the area around Kalmar and stretched across the borders of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. In 1312 the dukes married two Norwegian princesses, increasing their power and dynastic position; but in December of 1317 the dukes were imprisoned by their brother following a family dinner, and they died in prison. The nobility rebelled against Birger, who was forced to flee to Denmark in 1318, and the king's son was executed.

Code of law (law code)

      The magnates now seized control of Sweden and reasserted their power to elect a king. They chose Magnus (Magnus II Eriksson), the three-year-old son of Duke Erik, who had shortly before inherited the crown of Norway. In connection with the election, the privileges of the church and the nobility were confirmed, and the king was not to be allowed to raise taxes without the approval of the council and the provincial assemblies. The magnates now revised the laws of Svealand and, by the Treaty of Nöteborg (1323), established the Finnish border with Russia. The Danish province of Skåne was bought and put under the Swedish king; by 1335 Magnus ruled over Sweden, including Skåne and Blekinge, Finland, and Norway, to which he soon added Halland. During Magnus's reign a national law code was established (c. 1350), providing for the election of the king, preferably from among the royal sons, and a new town law code was written that gave the German merchants considerable privileges. In 1344 Magnus's elder son Erik was elected heir to the Swedish throne, one year after his younger brother Haakon (Haakon VI Magnusson) received the crown of Norway. Erik made common cause with the nobility and his uncle, Albert of Mecklenburg, against his father; and in 1356 Magnus was forced to share the kingdom with his son, who received Finland and Götaland. Two years later Erik died, and the kingdom was again united under Magnus's rule.

      In his struggles with the nobles, Magnus received the support of the Danish king, Valdemar Atterdag (Valdemar IV Atterdag), and in 1359 Magnus's son Haakon of Norway was engaged to Valdemar's daughter Margaret (Margaret I). The following year Valdemar attacked Skåne, and Magnus relinquished Skåne, Blekinge, and Halland in return for Valdemar's promise of help against Magnus's Swedish enemies. In 1361 Valdemar attacked Gotland and captured Visby, an important Baltic trading centre. Haakon, who had been made king of Sweden in 1362, and Margaret were married in 1363. Magnus's opponents among the nobility went to Mecklenburg and persuaded Duke Albert's son, also named Albert, to attack Sweden; Magnus was forced to flee to Haakon's territory in western Sweden. In 1364 the Folkung dynasty was replaced by Albert of Mecklenburg (1363–89). Albert joined in a coalition of Sweden, Mecklenburg, and Holstein against Denmark and succeeded in forcing Valdemar Atterdag from his throne for several years. Albert was not as weak as the nobles had hoped, and they forced him to sign two royal charters stripping him of his powers (1371 and 1383). At the end of the 1380s Albert had plans to reassert his power, primarily by recalling the royal lands that had been given to the nobles; in 1388 the Swedish nobles called upon Margaret, now regent of Denmark and Norway, for help. In 1389 her troops defeated and captured Albert, and she was hailed as Sweden's ruler. Albert's allies harried the Baltic and continued to hold out in Stockholm, and it was only in 1398 that Margaret finally won the Swedish capital. In 1396 her great-nephew Erik of Pomerania (Erik VII), then about age 16, became nominal king of Sweden, and the following year he was hailed and crowned king of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, marking the beginning of the Kalmar Union.

The Kalmar Union

      Sweden had entered the Kalmar Union on the initiative of the noble opponents of Albert of Mecklenburg. After Margaret's victory over Albert and his allies, the national council announced its willingness to return those royal estates that had been given to its members during Albert's reign, and Margaret succeeded in carrying out the recall of this property. She remained popular with the Swedes throughout her reign, but her successor, Erik, who took real power after her death in 1412, appointed a number of Danes and Germans to administrative posts in Sweden and interfered in the affairs of the church. His bellicose foreign policy caused him to extract taxes and soldiers from Sweden, arousing the peasants' anger. His war with Holstein resulted in a Hanseatic (Hanseatic League) blockade of the Scandinavian states in 1426, cutting off the import of salt and other necessities and the export of ore from Sweden, and led to a revolt by Bergslagen peasants and miners in 1434. The rebel leader, Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, formed a coalition with the national council; in 1435 a national meeting in Arboga named Engelbrekt captain of the realm. Erik agreed to change his policies and was again acknowledged as king of Sweden by the council. Erik's agreement was not fulfilled to the Swedes' satisfaction, however, and in 1436 a new meeting at Arboga renounced allegiance to Erik and made the nobleman Charles (Karl) Knutsson (Charles VIII Knutsson) captain of the realm along with Engelbrekt. Soon after, Engelbrekt was murdered by a nobleman; Charles Knutsson became the Swedish regent, and in 1438 the Danish council deposed Erik, followed in 1439 by the Swedish council.

 The Danish council elected Christopher of Bavaria (Christopher III) as king in 1440, and Karl Knutsson gave up his regency, receiving, in return, Finland as a fief, whereupon the Swedish council also accepted Christopher. He died in 1448 without heirs, and Charles Knutsson was elected king of Sweden as Charles VIII of Sweden. It was hoped that he would be accepted as the union king, but the Danes elected Christian of Oldenburg (Christian I). The Norwegians chose Charles as king, but a meeting of the Danish and Swedish councils in 1450 agreed to give up Charles's claims on Norway, while the councils agreed that the survivor of Charles and Christian would become the union king or, if this was unacceptable, that a new joint king would be elected when both were dead. Charles refused to accept this compromise, and war broke out between the two countries. In 1457 the noble opposition, led by Archbishop Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, rebelled against Charles, who fled to Danzig. Oxenstierna and Erik Axelsson Tott, a Danish noble, became the regents, and Christian was hailed as king of Sweden. Christian increased taxes, and in 1463 the peasants in Uppland refused to pay and were supported by Oxenstierna, whom Christian then imprisoned. The bishop of Linköping, a member of the Vasa (Vasa, House of) family, led a rebellion to free the archbishop, and Christian's army was defeated. Charles was recalled from Danzig (now Gdansk, Pol.) and again became king, but within six months difficulties between him and the nobles, especially Oxenstierna and the bishop of Linköping, forced him to leave the kingdom. Oxenstierna served as regent from 1465 to 1466 and was succeeded by Tott; the battles between the two families led to the recall of Charles, who ruled from 1467 to his death in 1470.

Political conflict

      After Charles's death, Sten Sture the Elder (Sture, Sten, The Elder) was elected regent by the council; his army, including the Totts and their sympathizers, burghers, and men from Bergslagen, defeated Christian's troops in the Battle of Brunkeberg on the outskirts of Stockholm (1471). During Sten's rule, Uppsala University was founded (1477). When Christian I died in 1481, the matter of the union again arose, and in 1483 John, Christian's son, was accepted as king of Sweden; Sten, however, managed to delay his coronation until 1497. In 1493 a new element entered Nordic affairs: John formed an alliance with the Muscovite Ivan III Vasilyevich directed against Sweden, which led to an unsuccessful Russian attack on Finland in 1495. The council became discontented with Sten's acquisition of power and in 1497 called on John, whose army defeated Sten's. John was crowned and Sten returned to Finland. By 1501 John's supporters were discontented with his rule, and Sten was recalled as regent. He died in 1503, and Svante Nilsson Sture (Sture, Svante) became regent. In 1506 a new war with Denmark began, in which Lübeck supported the Swedes. Svante died in 1512, and the council now attempted a reconciliation with Denmark under the regency of Erik Trolle, whose family supported the union. Svante's son, Sten Sture the Younger (Sture, Sten, The Younger), led a coup, however, and was elected regent. Peace with Denmark was concluded in 1513.

 The final years of the Kalmar Union were marked in Sweden by the struggle between the archbishop, Gustav Trolle (Trolle, Gustav) (inaugurated 1516), and Sten Sture the Younger. The archbishop was head of the council, and he took over the leadership of the pro-union party. A civil war broke out, and in 1517 a meeting of the estates in Stockholm declared Trolle removed from his position. Despite military assistance from Christian II, Trolle was imprisoned. After a defeat by the Swedes, Christian began negotiations and took six noblemen, among them Gustav Vasa (Gustav I Vasa), to Denmark as hostages. The Swedish treatment of Trolle brought a papal interdict of Sweden, and Christian could now act as executor. In 1520 a Danish army of mercenaries attacked Sweden, and Sten Sture was mortally wounded in a battle won by the Danes. Christian was acknowledged as king in return for a promise of mercy and constitutional government. The peasants, led by Sten's widow, refused to abandon the war, however, and it was several months before Stockholm capitulated. Christian was then crowned by the archbishop as hereditary monarch, breaking his promises to the council; and, despite promises of amnesty, 82 people, noblemen and clergy who had supported the Stures, were executed for heresy in the Stockholm Bloodbath. The responsibility for this execution has aroused considerable discussion among Swedish and Danish historians; the large part played by Gustav Trolle is now generally accepted.

End of the union

      Christian II now appeared to have Sweden under his control, but not all his opponents were dead or in prison. The nephew of Sten's widow, Gustav Vasa (Gustav I Vasa), had escaped from his Danish prison and returned to Sweden in 1520. After the Stockholm Bloodbath he went to Dalarna, where the Stures had their staunchest support, and soon a rebellion there was under way, followed by others around the country. By the spring of 1521 the army of men from Dalarna had won its first battle with the Danes, and soon noblemen were allying themselves with Gustav, who was chosen regent in August. In 1522 he persuaded Lübeck to aid the Swedish rebels; in 1523 the Danish nobility forced Christian to give up the Danish throne and elected Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp (Frederick (I)) as king. Three months later Gustav Vasa was elected Sweden's king by a meeting of the estates, and the Kalmar Union was dissolved.

      The balance of power in Sweden shifted during the union from the monarchy to the nobility (aristocracy), who took over the government of the country while the union kings were resident in the other kingdoms. The monarchs' attempts to control the administration by appointing their own supporters from Denmark aroused protests and rebellion from the Swedes. During the later half of the union, a split developed within the nobility between a pro-union and an antiunion faction. The pro-unionists generally owned estates in Denmark or Norway as well as in Sweden and believed that a union monarch would enable the nobility to exercise greater influence; the antiunion nobles preferred a strong national monarchy supported by a strong national nobility. The king and regents elected in Sweden during the union period came from within the ranks of the antiunion nobility.

      An important new class in society was composed of the commercial men and miners from Bergslagen, who were interested in the unimpeded export of Sweden's iron and copper. When the Danish interests conflicted with their own, most notably during the wars with the Germans, these men rebelled and supported a strong national monarchy, as did the burghers, who were also interested in the growth of trade. The church, on the other hand, preferred a weak monarch and supported the union.

      The great majority of Swedes continued to be peasants (peasant), and agriculture was the basic occupation of more than 90 percent of the people. From the Viking period through the 12th and 13th centuries, the cultivation of land expanded. The plains in the centre of Svealand around Lake Mälar, as well as in Västergötland and Östergötland, were all cultivated by the end of that period, and the wooded areas in the adjacent provinces of Småland, Värmland, and Dalarna were being brought under cultivation. In the first half of the 14th century, the expansion ceased, and, during the rest of that century and the beginning of the 15th, a recession set in that gave rise to extensive wasteland, reduced production, and increased the cost of living. The Black Death, which struck Sweden in 1349–50, was one of the reasons for this crisis in the late Middle Ages; it was not confined to Sweden but spread through most of Europe. In the latter half of the 15th century, a recovery occurred, and the wasteland began to be reclaimed. The major surplus product of Sweden was butter; from the mid-14th century, a fourth of Sweden's export consisted of this product. As the lands exempt from taxation owned by the nobility and the clergy increased, the burden of taxation on the peasants grew; from the Engelbrekt rebellion in the 1430s through the remaining decades of the union, the peasants fought on the side of the antiunion forces.

Henrik Enander Jörgen Weibull

The early Vasa (Vasa, House of) kings (1523–1611)

 After Gustav I Vasa was elected to the throne in 1523, he began to restore the power of the Swedish king and to organize a central administration under his own direct leadership. On the one hand, this task was facilitated by the elimination of a great part of the high nobility by the Stockholm Bloodbath. On the other hand, the influence of the king was limited by the economic dependence of Lübeck and the Hanseatic League. In connection with the war against Denmark and the liberation of Stockholm in 1523, Gustav Vasa had been forced to make great concessions to Lübeck, which had given him both economic and military support. In exchange, the merchants of Lübeck and the Hanseatic League were given privileges that created a monopoly of Swedish foreign trade and even had considerable influence on domestic trade and industry. The concessions also included a large payment and left Sweden heavily in debt to Lübeck. Under the mediation of Lübeck, the war with Denmark was brought to an end by a treaty concluded in Malmö in 1524.

      After the death of the Danish king Frederick I, his son Christian III became king in 1534. When Lübeck attempted at this time to restore the exiled Christian II as king in Denmark, Gustav Vasa gave the young Christian III strong military support in a war against Lübeck. The Hanseatic army was beaten in 1535, and by the terms of a truce in 1536 the Swedish debt to Lübeck was wiped out and the privileges of Lübeck traders were abolished. By this action Hanseatic hegemony was destroyed, other foreign traders were allowed to enter Sweden, and Swedish traders could now move freely beyond the Baltic. Sweden's relations with Denmark remained peaceful for the rest of Gustav Vasa's reign.

      Gustav Vasa devoted the major part of his rule to domestic politics, and he is credited with establishing Sweden as a sovereign state. His initial goal as king was to stabilize the nation's financial situation. Through stern acts passed by the Diet at Västerås in 1527, he was able to confiscate all the properties of the Roman Catholic Church. The church at that time held 21 percent of Sweden's land, as opposed to only 6 percent held by the crown. The appropriation of the possessions of the church thus added enormously to the wealth of the state. To some degree the king could justify his actions on the basis of the doctrines of Martin Luther (Luther, Martin), which were being accepted nationwide with royal encouragement. The Swedish and Roman Catholic churches separated as the Reformation spread, and the Lutheran (Lutheranism) Swedish church was eventually adopted as the state church. The establishment of the new religious order (Protestantism) occurred simultaneously with a reorganization of government, which was accomplished with the assistance of German administrators brought in by Gustav. The new, highly centralized administration attained an unprecedented degree of efficiency.

      During the latter part of his reign Gustav achieved absolute power and ruled Sweden in accordance with his own precepts. In 1544 the king established a hereditary monarchy in Sweden and accelerated the annexations of land, which finally gave the crown direct possession of about 60 percent of Swedish soil before he died. Gustav Vasa has been compared to a landowner in his behaviour toward the crown properties and the state incomes. He personally took part in developing their administration, and he continuously inspected the crown servants. He nominated county governors himself and reserved the most important charges for members of his own family. Money economy had barely come to Sweden, and many state incomes were therefore paid in kind; some of the goods exchanged were used directly to feed and clothe public servants and soldiers, while others were sold to foreign merchants. Gustav took great pleasure in literally filling the treasury, in which condition it was handed over to his son. The nobility was allowed no part in state affairs, and the Diet was convened only for royal propaganda, of which Gustav was a master. Not surprisingly, Gustav's new system was not universally accepted. In such regions as Västergötland, Dalarna, and Småland, there was considerable resentment over the imposition of state control. In the 1530s and '40s the farmers grumbled over taxes, and the clergymen complained about interference in church matters. Gustav met opposition from his former friends—e.g., the farmer-miners of Dalarna—with the same ruthlessness as that from other dissenters. Gustav led a careful foreign policy; nevertheless, a considerable army and a strong navy were created during his reign. Sweden also advanced culturally under Gustav's rule: among the notable literary (Swedish literature) accomplishments of the period were a complete translation of the New Testament and the publication of the hymns and theological writings of Olaus Petri (Petri, Olaus), who played an important role in the Swedish Reformation.

 Following the death of Gustav Vasa, his oldest son, Erik XIV, became king. In his will Gustav had, however, appointed his younger sons dukes and given them part of the realm as duchies with great power in domestic affairs. One of the first steps taken by Erik XIV was to strip his brothers of all power by a treaty that he forced them to sign at Arboga in 1561. The main interest of Erik XIV was, however, devoted to foreign policy. One of his goals was to gain control of Russian trade through the Baltic ports. As a first step he negotiated with the Estonian nobility, which agreed to Swedish rule in 1561 and thereby laid the foundation for a Swedish Baltic empire. His aspirations led to conflicts with Denmark and Lübeck, which, up to the 16th century, had been the leading powers in this region. Control of the Baltic Sea became a central issue. In the 16th and 17th centuries the Baltic region, Europe's main source of grain, iron, copper, timber, tar, hemp, and furs, was as important as either the Mediterranean or the Atlantic. The Swedish effort to gain control over trade in the Baltic resulted in war with Denmark, Lübeck, and Poland in 1563. After seven bloody years, during which the southern parts of Sweden were ravaged, a peace was signed at Stettin (now Szczecin, Pol.) in 1570, without change to any of the borders. Sweden was forced, however, to pay a large ransom to retrieve the fortress of Älvsborg, its only stronghold in the west. Before the peace was concluded, Erik XIV, accused of lunacy after having murdered some of the leading aristocrats by his own hand, was deposed in 1568 by his brother John, who was supported by the high nobility. Erik later died in prison, probably poisoned on the order of his brother.

 With the support of the high nobility, John III ascended to the throne in 1568. His reign (1568–92) was characterized by conflict between the king and the high nobility, who asked for a constitutional government and greater influence for the council. At the same time, John tried to reintroduce Roman Catholic customs into the Swedish church, which led to conflict with the clergy. His religious policy was a consequence of his marriage to a Polish princess and the subsequent close political alliance between Sweden and Poland. Their son, Sigismund III Vasa, was elected king of Poland in 1587 before inheriting the throne of Sweden in 1592. Opposition to Sigismund developed because of his Roman Catholicism and his extensive stays in Poland. At a meeting in Uppsala in 1593 the clergy adopted a declaration that became the definitive confirmation of Sweden as a Lutheran country. The strong feelings against Sigismund were also exploited by his uncle Charles, who organized all conceivable Swedish opposition against the recognition of Sigismund. By doing so, Charles made the Diet (and of course the clergy) a political force against the high nobility. The final outcome was the resignation of Sigismund in 1599.

       Charles IX was an administrator very much like his father. His foreign policy aimed at dominating the Russian trade routes toward the Kola Peninsula and the White Sea and at grasping as much as possible of the territory (Russian and other) south of the Gulf of Finland (Finland, Gulf of). Sweden thus was susceptible to Danish attack, which came in 1611 and began the so-called Kalmar War, a conflict that ended with the Peace of Knäred in 1613. By the terms of the peace, Sweden had to renounce its claim on the territories in the far north of Scandinavia and pay a new large ransom for the fortress of Älvsborg, taken by the Danes during the war. Charles IX, however, did not live to experience the defeat.

The Age of Greatness

      The early Vasa (Vasa, House of) kings created the Swedish state. Its chief characteristic was a strong monarchy (absolutism) in a rather rustic and backward economy (with the mining industry a noteworthy exception). Its chief weaknesses were opposition from the high nobility and a thirst for revenge on Denmark. In the following decades Sweden relegated Denmark to second place in the north and became a most aggressive great power.

The reign of Gustav II Adolf

  Gustav II Adolf (Gustavus II Adolphus; ruled 1611–32) was only 16 years old when his father, Charles IX, died, so the actual leadership passed to the aristocrat Axel Oxenstierna (Oxenstierna, Axel, Greve) and the council. The regency period lasted only a few months, however, before Gustav Adolf took full power. After the Kalmar War the king joined in organizing the Swedes for the next war. Civil servants and officers were selected exclusively from among the nobility. A standing army was organized. The infantry was conscripted among the peasants and regularly trained by officers who lived on the king's farms among their soldiers; only the cavalry and the navy were professional. Swedish copper and iron were made into the best firearms of the period. The Swedish field artillery proved especially mobile and effective. The central administration was professionalized and became a model of efficiency; directing it were members of the high nobility, working together in collegiate bodies. The new organization of the Swedish administration, parts of which still exist, was confirmed by the constitution adopted in 1634.

 When Gustav II Adolf ascended the throne, the country was already embroiled in wars with Denmark, Russia, and Poland. As noted above, the war with Denmark was concluded by the Peace of Knäred with some losses for Sweden. The war with Russia was fought more successfully, however, with Swedish armies even reaching Moscow. Russia was thereby forced to agree to the Treaty of Stolbovo (Stolbovo, Treaty of) in 1617, by the terms of which Sweden acquired the provinces of Ingria and Kexholm. The war with Poland continued into the 1620s, and after several campaigns in the Baltic States it was successfully concluded in 1629 by the Truce of Altmark, by which Sweden received Livonia and the right to the customs of key Baltic harbours. At about the same time, Gustav Adolf negotiated with France for its support against the German (Ferdinand II) emperor (Holy Roman Empire), whose armies threatened the south shores of the Baltic. In 1630 Gustav Adolf with his Swedish army landed in northern Germany, joining in the Thirty Years' War. In 1631 Sweden concluded its treaty with France, and, at Breitenfeld (Breitenfeld, Battle of) in that same year, the Swedish army practically annihilated the imperial forces under the famous Bavarian general the Count von Tilly (Tilly, Johann Tserclaes, Graf von).

      Gustav Adolf's German campaign swept southward, and by late 1631 he had taken Mainz and Frankfurt am Main. By the spring and summer of 1632, he had marched through Bavaria, where Nürnberg, Augsburg, and Munich also fell. At Lützen (Lützen, Battle of) on November 6, Gustav Adolf's Swedish forces engaged the imperial army led by Albrecht von Wallenstein (Wallenstein, Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von, Herzog von Friedland, Herzog von Mecklenburg, Fürst Von Sagen), and a fierce battle ensued. The encounter resulted in an important tactical victory for Sweden but at great cost: Gustav Adolf was killed in battle.

      Gustav Adolf's only heir, his daughter Christina, had not reached her sixth birthday at the time of her father's death. A council of the high nobility led by the chancellor Axel Oxenstierna (Oxenstierna, Axel, Greve) controlled the regency during her minority. The council resolved to carry on the war against Germany despite its great cost and a diminishing German threat.

Warfare through the mid-17th century

 For 16 more years the war continued with varying success. The Swedish armies, which at the beginning of the war were composed largely of Swedish peasants, consisted during its later stages mostly of mercenaries from Germany, Scotland, and England. Many foreign officers took up permanent residence in Sweden and were ennobled. At the Peace of Westphalia (Westphalia, Peace of), which in 1648 ended the war, Sweden was granted most of Pomerania and other territorial concessions along the Baltic and the North Sea coasts, but the Polish ports had to be relinquished.

      Sweden's strategic position was now entirely changed, and in a short war with Denmark (1643–45) Sweden demonstrated its military superiority and established its position as the dominant power in the Baltic region. During the reign of Queen Christina (ruled 1644–54), the transfer of crown property to the nobility, which had begun as an instrument to finance the wars, continued on an increasing scale. The queen, however, proved to have a remarkably independent will. She refused to marry, and she used the Diet and the threat of the Reduction (return of crown properties) to have her first cousin, Charles Gustav of the Palatinate, recognized as her heir to the throne. Then Christina, the daughter of the “saviour of Protestantism,” abdicated, converted publicly to Catholicism, and went to Rome, where she lived the rest of her life.

 In 1655 Charles X Gustav (ruled 1654–60) initiated a campaign (Northern War, First) (known as the First Northern War (Northern War, First)) in Poland and conquered most of the country. When in 1657 the resistance grew stronger, Denmark used the opportunity to declare war. Charles Gustav then turned his forces toward Denmark. In one of the most daring exploits in military history, he led his troops over the straits called the Belts, which only rarely freeze over, and scored a quick victory over the Danes. In the Peace of Roskilde that followed in February 1658, Sweden acquired the provinces of Skåne, Halland, Blekinge, and Bohuslän, thus establishing the country's modern-day boundaries. In addition, Sweden received Trondheim and the island of Bornholm, both of which were lost two years later when Charles Gustav, in a second war against Denmark, tried to take the entire country and achieve his goal of unifying Scandinavia. The king suddenly died after failing to capture Copenhagen.

  Charles XI, only four years old at his father's death, became king. During the long regency that followed, the influence of the high nobility under the chancellor Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (De la Gardie, Magnus Gabriel, Greve) grew to a degree that threatened the freedom of the peasants and the finances of the crown. In 1672, at age 17, Charles XI led a difficult offensive against Denmark for possession of the southern provinces. Peace was finally agreed to in 1679 with no advantage for either side; Charles was then faced with the enormous problem of reorganizing the economy and the administration of the country.

Impact of continuous warfare

      A generation of continuous warfare had had a profound impact on Swedish society. The Swedish nobility (aristocracy) had gained about two-thirds of Swedish and Finnish soil through the transfer of crown property and of royal ground taxes. The nobles wanted to perpetuate this process and to introduce the same feudal structure that they had seen and used in their annexations in the Baltic area.

      This danger to Swedish and Finnish peasants was not finally averted until the 1680s, when the noble possessions were greatly reduced. The reduction had started in the 1650s as a means of leverage to get the high nobles to pay their taxes and agree to various acts. Faced with this threat, the high nobility agreed to pay, and even agreed to minor reductions in their possessions. While Charles XI was still a minor during the 1660s, the high nobles were able to retain their advantages for yet another generation.

      With the reduction of the holdings of the nobility in the 1680s, Sweden returned to the political structure of the early Vasa (Vasa, House of) kings. The income of public properties recaptured from the nobility was permanently allotted to public servants, officers, and soldiers. This system, which remained in force throughout the 18th century and far into the 19th, made the crown less dependent on the Diet in matters of finance. The years 1680–1700 were a period of consolidation. It has been called the Carolingian absolutism because it occurred during the reign of Charles XI (ruled 1672–97). But, because of the precariousness of the Swedish annexations in the Baltic, the Carolingian absolutism involved a continuous preparation for war.

The reign of Charles XII

       Charles XII acceded to the throne at age 15 at a time when, in the hinterland of the Baltic coast, dominated by the Swedes, new states were being formed. Brandenburg and Russia, together with such older states as Denmark and Poland, were natural enemies of Sweden. Denmark, Poland, and Russia made a treaty in 1699, while Prussia preferred to wait and see. The Second Northern War (Northern War, Second) (also known as the Great Northern War) began when the three allies attacked the Swedish provinces in February 1700, prompting a swift retaliatory attack on Denmark by Swedish forces. The strike by Sweden forced Denmark to leave the alliance and conclude peace. The Russian army, which had invaded Sweden's Baltic provinces, was shortly afterward overwhelmingly beaten by Charles's troops at the Battle of Narva. Charles then turned toward Poland (1702–06). In so doing, he gave the Russian tsar, Peter I (the Great), (Peter I) sufficient time to found St. Petersburg (Saint Petersburg) and a Baltic fleet and to reorganize the Russian army. Charles XII began his Russian offensive in 1707. The Russians for the first time used a scorched-earth strategy, thus diverting the Swedish armies from Moscow to Ukraine, where the Swedes suffered a crushing defeat at Poltava (Poltava, Battle of) in June 1709.

      Charles spent the next five years in Bender (now Bendery, Moldova), then under Turkish (Ottoman Empire) rule, attempting in vain to persuade the Turks to attack Russia. The sultan clearly had no reason to do so, because Peter had turned his attention toward the Baltic. In the years following Poltava, Russia occupied all the Swedish annexations on the Baltic coast and even Finland; Hannover occupied Bremen and Verden; Denmark took Holstein-Gottorp; and Prussia lay waiting for the Swedish part of Pomerania.

      Astonishingly, Charles governed Sweden from his residence in Bender during this catastrophe. In 1715 he returned to Sweden (he had left in 1700). He then decided to attack Norway in order to obtain a western alliance against the Baltic powers. On Nov. 30, 1718, during a siege of the fortress of Fredriksten east of the Oslo fjord, Charles was killed by a bullet of either Norwegian or Swedish origin. His death ended the so-called Age of Greatness. By the Peace of Nystad (1721), Sweden formally resigned the Baltic provinces, part of Karelia, and the city of Vyborg (near St. Petersburg) to Russia.

Social and economic conditions

      As in most of Europe, agriculture was the main preoccupation in the Scandinavian countries in the 16th and 17th centuries. But increasing economic activity in these centuries stimulated a more specialized and commercial exploitation of their natural resources.

      Because of the growing demand for cereals and meat in western Europe, Denmark underwent the same change as did the countries east of the Elbe—the domanial system was introduced for commercial agriculture and cattle raising. Sweden and Norway had other resources. Their forests were still virgin, thus providing the indispensable raw materials for European shipbuilding and overseas expansion. Because the trees grew slowly, the wood became hard and well suited also for furniture and tools.

      The mining industry in Sweden was founded in the 13th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries copper and iron were the most important exports from Sweden. But Sweden also had its own metallurgical industry, producing weapons especially.

      The Scandinavian countries had very little active foreign trade of their own. Only Dutch and British—and to a certain extent German—merchants had sufficient capital and the foreign ties to organize the export.

      The landlordship in Sweden sprang less from economic than from political causes. The Swedish nobility had a vested interest in lifting Sweden from its underdog position of the 16th century. As noted, the nobles acquired strong positions as commanders and administrators in the conquered areas. Thus, in Sweden, they were able to introduce the domanial system on the soil transferred to them during the Age of Greatness. But, in great contrast to Denmark or the conquered areas, serfdom never came to Sweden; Swedish farmers remained free. Sweden was the only European country in which peasants (peasant) formed the fourth estate in the Diet. Since the Middle Ages royal propaganda had been designed to influence the opinion of the peasants in political matters.

      Because Swedish industry was adapted to Sweden's aggressive foreign policy and because exports were in foreign hands, there was little room for an independent bourgeoisie in this period. Social mobility was primarily influenced by the state. Individual careers and personal fortunes could best be made as soldiers, purveyors to the crown, officers, and public servants. In the 16th and 17th centuries the social structure of Sweden also spread to the formerly completely agrarian Finland.

      Swedish society had a considerable capacity for assimilation. Although Denmark-Norway did not until 1720 give up hope of recapturing the provinces that had been lost to Sweden around the middle of the 17th century, it could not count on active support from the populations of these provinces.

The 18th century

 Charles XII had no successor. In 1718 his sister Ulrika Eleonora had to convene the Diet in order to be elected. In 1720 she abdicated in favour of her husband, Frederick of Hessen (Frederick (I)) (ruled 1720–51).

The Age of Freedom (1718–72)

      This period saw a transition from absolutism to a parliamentary form of government. The real reason for the change was the complete failure of the policy of “greatness” connected with the Carolingian absolutism. According to the constitutional laws of 1720–23, the power now rested with the estates. The estates met regularly in the Diet, which designated the council. There the king was accorded a double vote but had no right to make decisions. In the Diet, decision making took place in the “Secret Committee,” from which the peasants, or the fourth estate, were excluded. The public sessions of the estates in the Diet were reserved for speeches and debates. The three upper estates consisted mainly of state servants. Thus, the so-called Age of Freedom, which lasted until 1772, was also an age of bureaucracy.

      During this period a dual-party system evolved; the parties were known by the nicknames “Nightcaps” (or “Caps”) and “Hats.” Both parties were mercantilist, but the Nightcaps were the more prudent. Up to 1738 the Nightcaps were in power. They led a most careful foreign policy so as not to provoke Russia. From 1738 to 1765 power passed to the Hats, who made treaties with France in order to obtain subsidies and support against Russia. War with Russia in 1741–43 led to a temporary Russian occupation of Finland and to a further loss of Finnish provinces northwest of St. Petersburg. A war (Seven Years' War) with Prussia in 1757–62 was very expensive. The Hats attempted to make Sweden a great economic power, but their economic policy and the war costs led to inflation and financial collapse, and their regime came to an end in 1765.

      For some years political confusion reigned in Sweden. The Nightcaps received subsidies from Russia, and their negotiations with Prussia and Denmark intensified party struggles in Sweden. Economic chaos, territorial losses, foreign infiltration, and famine in the countryside undermined the parliamentary system. Historians have sometimes stressed these failures too strongly, however, in glorifying the past Carolingian age and the future Gustavian epoch. It has become increasingly clear that during the period the Swedish heritage of freedom was significantly shaped. A true parliamentary system gradually developed, which, although hampered by cumbersome procedures, is a notable parallel to the contemporary English system. The political changes that marked the period are especially significant because of their influence on the Swedish constitution. Despite the turmoil that prevailed, the period was notable for its social and cultural advancements. Ideas about land reform were formulated; progress in science was encouraged; and the Swedish press was initiated. Noteworthy individual achievements include the thermometer scale of Anders Celsius (Celsius, Anders), the botanical classification system of Carolus Linnaeus (Linnaeus, Carolus) (Carl von Linné), and the religious philosophical postulations of Emanuel Swedenborg (Swedenborg, Emanuel). During the Age of Freedom, Sweden reached a level of scholarly and cultural attainment equal to that of the most advanced nations of western Europe. By the last years of this period, however, numerous problems beset the country, and Sweden was ripe for a change of government.

The era of Gustav III

 When Frederick of Hessen died in 1751, he was succeeded by Adolf Frederick, who ruled until his death in 1771. While visiting Paris, Gustav III (ruled 1771–92) acceded to the throne. Before returning, he concluded another treaty with France. In 1772 he used the royal guard and officers of the Finnish army to seize control of the government from the parliament in a bloodless coup d'état. Gustav tried to exploit the Vasa (Vasa, House of) and Carolingian traditions of personal royal power. He could rely on no class of the Swedish society nor on the political institutions of the 18th century, so he had to make the most of royal propaganda to the public. In this he was not without success; the traditional picture of Gustav is that of “King Charming,” the promoter of the arts and sciences.

      But Gustav's politics were unstable. Until 1786 he put into effect social reforms that belonged to enlightened despotism, thus enmeshing himself in its traditional dilemma: alienating the “haves” without satisfying the “have nots.” Even his solution to the dilemma was a traditional one—war. After Turkey attacked Russia in 1787, Gustav went to war against Russia in 1788 to recapture the Finnish provinces. The Swedish attack failed, partly because of a conspiracy by noble Swedish officers—the Anjala League—who, during the war, sent a letter to Catherine II (the Great) of Russia, proposing negotiations. Gustav used the treason of the Anjala League to provoke an outburst of genuine patriotism in Sweden, hoping to channel popular opinion through the Diet, which he convened in 1789. At this Diet the king called the four estates to a joint meeting, where he, with the support of the members of the three lower estates, overruled the nobility and stripped the council of all its authority, giving the king absolute power. At the same time, however, the three lower estates, against Gustav's will, abolished practically all the privileges of the nobility (e.g., the nobility no longer had special rights to any posts in the administration or to any category of Swedish land). On March 16, 1792, the king was mortally wounded by a nobleman and former officer of the royal guards. The last years of the king and especially the days between the shooting and his death (March 29) made him a martyr in the minds of his people, perhaps undeservedly.

      Viewed in its entirety, the 18th century in Sweden was a golden age of trade and commerce. In 1731 the Swedish East India Company was founded, which was extremely successful until it was forced out of business during the Napoleonic Wars. The capital produced by the East India Company and other commercial enterprises formed the basis for a rapid growth of manufacturing enterprises, such as shipbuilding and textile production. But the most important manufacturing industry in Sweden was ironworking (iron processing), which expanded rapidly during the 18th century. Iron was also the most important export commodity, and the production of pig iron in Sweden increased to more than one-third of world production by 1750.

      The 18th century was also characterized by great social changes. Farmers obtained the right to purchase clear title to crown lands, and so most of the peasants came to own their farms. At the same time, the prices of their products were increased and profits grew. This development coincided with the growth of a large rural proletariat. The burghers' wealth and influence grew rapidly, as did trade and industry. A consequence of the social changes was that commoners were allowed to own exempt land and were admitted to high government posts previously held only by nobles. The nobility became less exclusive, and social mobility increased.

The Napoleonic Wars and the 19th century

Royalist reaction

 A fear of the influence of revolutionary (French Revolution) France dominated the Swedish government during the last decade of the 18th century and the first of the 19th. These fears were reflected in major economies in public finances, the legislation of land reforms, and the censoring of French literature. Gustav IV (Gustav IV Adolf) (ruled 1792–1809), unlike his father, Gustav III, was pious and superstitious. He considered events in France to be insults to moral order. A deep aversion toward the revolutionaries and toward Napoleon (Napoleon I) characterized his foreign policy. Of decisive importance was his resolution in 1805 to join the coalition against France. When France and Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit (Tilsit, Treaties of) in 1807, Gustav stubbornly accepted war, even with Russia. Denmark, which had sided with France in October 1807, declared war against Sweden in 1808. England, at the moment busy in Spain, could offer little help. Sweden thus became politically isolated, with enemies in the east, south, and west. The Swedish army defended Finland poorly, with that defense reaching its nadir when the strong fortress of Sveaborg near Helsingfors was handed over to the Russians by treason. The Russians advanced as far as Umeå in Sweden.

      In March 1809 Gustav IV was deposed by a group of high officials and officers. More than anything else, a widespread longing for a quick and cheap peace brought the men of 1809 to power, but they were unable to save Finland. In September 1809 a bitter peace was made at Fredrikshamn, in which Sweden surrendered Finland and the Åland Islands (northeast of Stockholm) to Russia. A new constitution was promulgated, embodying the principle of separation of powers. The division of the Diet into four estates remained. Charles XIII (ruled 1809–18), the uncle of Gustav IV, was elected king. The fact that he was senile and childless opened the question of succession to the throne.

      With the consent of Denmark, the commander in chief of the Norwegian army, Christian August (at the moment waging war against Sweden), was elected crown prince and took the name Charles August. Behind this decision were thoughts of a Scandinavian confederation. This solution was cherished by Denmark and even by Napoleon.

      In 1810 Charles August died, and the question of the succession to the throne was reopened. The old king, Charles XIII, and the majority of the council wanted to elect the brother of the deceased, the Danish prince Frederick Christian of Augustenborg (Christian VIII). However, the younger officers and civil servants, who were great admirers of Napoleon and wanted Sweden to join France, worked for another solution. A Swedish lieutenant, Baron Carl Otto Mörner, was sent to Paris as their envoy to offer one of Napoleon's marshals the throne of Sweden. The choice fell on the prince of Pontecorvo, the marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte (Charles XIV John). This choice pleased Napoleon, though he may have preferred the Swedish throne to be taken over by his ally King Frederick VI of Denmark-Norway. Meanwhile, the French consul in Göteborg and the Francophile Swedish foreign minister, Lars Engeström, managed to persuade the Diet to set aside the Danish alternative and to name Bernadotte as crown prince of Sweden in August 1810.

Bernadotte (Charles XIV John)

 From his arrival in Sweden in October 1810, Bernadotte, who took the name Charles John, became the real leader of Swedish politics. In designating him for the crown, the Swedes hoped that he would somehow reconquer Finland and the Åland Islands. Charles John, however, who was well aware of the weakness of the Napoleonic empire, initiated a completely different policy. Rather than fight for Finland, he sought alliances with Napoleon's enemies that would permit Sweden to take Norway from Denmark. He approached Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and in April 1812 Sweden entered a treaty by which it promised to support Russia against Napoleon. According to the treaty, Finland would remain a Russian possession, but in compensation Sweden would be allowed to acquire Norway. When Napoleon began his Russian campaign shortly thereafter, Charles John sided with Tsar Alexander. A meeting between Charles John and Alexander in August 1812 further strengthened the alliance, and the tsar apparently promised to support Charles John's plan to play a major political role in France after the fall of Napoleon.

      Charles John then turned to the West. In March 1813 he negotiated a treaty with England by which, for participating in the final offensive against Napoleon, England also agreed to let Charles John take Norway. Thus, Charles John became commander in chief of the northern allied army, consisting of Prussian, Russian, and Swedish soldiers. He used this army sparingly, especially the Swedish contingent, even at the Battle of Leipzig (Leipzig, Battle of) in October 1813, because he cherished a hope of succeeding Napoleon and also because he needed troops to attack Denmark. After Leipzig, Charles John refused to cross the Rhine; instead he led the northern army against Denmark. The result was the Treaty of Kiel (Kiel, Treaty of), whereby Norway was surrendered.

      By accepting a constitution in Norway, Charles John became heir, peacefully, to his second throne in four years and consequently gained a more independent position in Sweden. He hoped, moreover, to impress liberal circles in France favourably. The cession of Finland to Russia was a bitter loss for Sweden; but, in the words of the Swedish historian Sten Carlsson in 1969, “The loss of Finland was the price of the long and still unbroken period of peace that was to begin in 1814.”

Gudmund Sandvik Jörgen Weibull

Society and politics (1815–1900)

Population and the economy

      The population of Sweden, which in 1815 was barely 2,500,000, reached 3,500,000 by 1850 and 5,100,000 by 1900. During the period 1815 to 1900, therefore, the country's population had more than doubled, despite a loss of 850,000 emigrants (mainly to North America) during the period 1840 to 1900.

      Until the last quarter of the 19th century, Sweden was a predominantly agricultural country. In 1850, 90 percent of the population lived off the land. By 1900 the figure was still as high as 75 percent. At the beginning of the 19th century, rural dwellings were clustered together in the villages, and the fields were cultivated under an old open-field system. The basis for an agricultural modernization was laid down by a statute of 1827 on enclosures (enclosure) (laga skifte), which stated that, when possible, the fields of the individual farm should be assembled together in a compact area. Enclosures of lands, which took place throughout the 19th century, changed the face of the countryside. Villages were split up, and scattered farms became the predominant type of dwelling in Sweden. The move away from the village system brought about a widespread reclamation of wasteland and the modernization of agriculture, which accounted in part for the increase in population.

      During the first half of the 19th century, trade and industry were still restricted by regulations and guild rules. The middle of the 19th century witnessed the beginning of industrial organization, primarily in the timber trade, and in the last quarter of the 19th century the industrial revolution began in earnest with the advent of new methods in iron and steel production and the birth of a number of specialized industries, such as those of machines and machine tools. During the greater part of the 19th century, however, Sweden was a poor and overpopulated country.

The conservative era (1815–40)

      At the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, Sweden was hard hit by an economic slump that lasted until 1830, characterized by abortive attempts to reestablish the value of the currency. After devaluation in 1834, the currency was finally stabilized. Charles John, who became king under the name of Charles XIV John (ruled 1818–44), pursued a strictly conservative policy. The king's power, invested in him by the constitution, was exploited to the limit; and the ministers were recruited from his henchmen without regard to the wishes of parliament. In the 1820s the liberal opposition steadily increased its demands for reforms, and 1830 was the year in which liberal opinion made a breakthrough. In Sweden this was indicated by the establishing of a newspaper, Aftonbladet, which, with Lars Johan Hierta as editor, became the leading journal of the liberal opposition. Simultaneously, the king's one-man rule, which was exercised through his powerful favourite Magnus Brahe, became even more emphatic. The struggle against the growing liberal opposition, which reached its climax at the end of the 1830s, was characterized by actions against the freedom of the press and indictments of high treason and countered by the liberals with sharp criticism, demonstrations, and street riots.

The liberal reform period

 The pressure of the opposition, however, at last forced the king to yield, and the 1840 parliament, in which the liberal opposition had attained a majority, forced through the “departmental reform,” which meant that the ministers actually became the heads of their own ministries. Another reform of great significance was the introduction in 1842 of compulsory school education. When Charles XIV John died in 1844 and was succeeded by his son Oscar I (ruled 1844–59), the liberal reform period had already gained momentum.

Principal reforms

      Among the most important of the reforms was the introduction of free enterprise (capitalism) in 1846, which meant the abolition of the guilds. They were now replaced by free industrial and trade associations. Simultaneously, the monopoly of trade that the towns had held since the Middle Ages was also abolished. Finally, by the introduction of a statute in 1864, complete freedom of enterprise became a reality. The lifting of almost all bans on exports and imports in 1847, together with a reduction in customs duties, was the first step toward free trade. A number of other liberal reforms were introduced: equal rights of inheritance for men and women (1845), unmarried women's rights (1858), a more humane penal code through a number of reforms (1855–64), religious freedom (1860), and local self-government (1862). Another significant step was the decision in 1854 that the state should be responsible for the building and management of main-line railroads.

Parliamentary reform

 Oscar I, who took the initiative himself in many of these reforms, became more conservative after the disturbances in Stockholm in 1848. When he was succeeded by his son, Charles XV (ruled 1859–72), the power had in reality gradually passed into the hands of the privy council, which, under the leadership of the minister of finance, Baron Johan August Gripenstedt (Gripenstedt, Johan August, Friherre), and the minister of justice, Baron Louis De Geer, completed the reforms. From the beginning of the 19th century, the most important of the liberal demands had been for a reform of the system of representation. It was not until 1865–66 that agreement was reached to replace the old Riksdag—with its four estates of nobility, clergy, burghers, and peasantry—with a parliament consisting of two chambers with equal rights. The members of the first were chosen by indirect vote and with such a high eligibility qualification that it bore the stamp of an upper chamber representing great landowners and commercial and industrial entrepreneurs. The members of the second were chosen by direct popular vote, which was limited, however, by a property qualification and therefore gave the farmers an advantage.

Political stagnation (1866–1900)

      The reform of the representative system marked the end of the liberal reform period. During the following 20 years, Swedish politics were dominated by two issues: the demand for an abolition of ground tax, which had been levied from ancient times, and the defense question, where the demand was for an abolition of the military system of indelningsverket—i.e., an army organization in which the soldiers were given small holdings to live on. The defense system was to be modernized by an increase in conscription. The first chamber's demand for rearmament, however, was impossible in view of the second chamber's demand for the abolition of the ground tax. As these issues had been linked together in the 1873 compromise, they were not resolved until 1892, when it was decided to abolish the ground tax and to replace the old army organization with a larger and better-trained conscripted army. The latter was completed through the defense reform of 1901, which introduced a conscripted army with a 240-day period of service.

      The falling prices of wheat on the world market in the 1880s gave rise to a serious agricultural crisis. In 1888 a moderate tariff was introduced that was gradually raised in the following years. The second chamber, which since the electoral reform had been dominated by the Farmers' Party, was at this time split into a protectionist faction and a free-trade faction. In this era the parties that still dominate Swedish politics today came into being: the Swedish Social Democratic Workers' Party (SAP; commonly called the Swedish Social Democratic Party) was founded in 1889; liberal factions in the Riksdag merged into the Liberal Union in 1900; and conservatives united under the banner of the Conservative (later Moderate (Moderate Party)) Party in 1904.

Foreign policy

      Until the end of the 19th century, foreign policy was still regarded as the monarch's personal province. Already, as crown prince, Charles John had concluded an alliance with Russia against almost unanimous opposition and by so doing initiated the Russia-oriented policy that characterized the whole of his reign. The succession of Oscar I to the throne in 1844 brought no immediate alteration. The only deviation was in his somewhat carefully demonstrated sympathy for the growing Pan-Scandinavian movement. When the German nationals rebelled against the Danish king in 1848, Oscar I aligned himself with Frederick VII and contributed, together with the tsar, to a cease-fire and armistice.

Change in alliance policy

      During the negotiations on Schleswig-Holstein, Oscar I was still on the side of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, aligned more or less against the radical nationalism in Germany. But in reality he endeavoured to extricate Sweden from the conservative Russia-oriented policy that Charles John had initiated in 1812. The opportunity came during the Crimean War (1853–56), when Oscar I adopted a friendly attitude to the Western powers and, among other things, opened Swedish harbours to English and French warships and tried to induce the Western powers, with the help of Swedish troops, to attack St. Petersburg. With this intention, he signed the November Treaty with the Western powers in 1855. The peace treaty that was concluded in Paris (Paris, Treaty of) shortly afterward, however, ended the hopes cherished in Sweden of winning Finland, or at least Åland, back again. All that was gained was the Åland Convention, which forbade Russia to build fortifications or to have other military installations on Åland.

Pan-Scandinavianism

      During the 1840s and '50s the idea of a united Scandinavia had won great support among students and intellectuals. Crown Prince Charles had spoken out enthusiastically in favour of this ideal, and, after his succession to the throne in 1859, he assured the Danish king of Sweden's solidarity, promising Swedish support to defend the frontier at the Eider—the southern boundary of Schleswig. Encouraged by these promises, Denmark embarked upon the policy that led to the Danish-Prussian War of 1864. The Swedish government, however, reluctantly refused to honour the king's pledge. Scandinavian unity subsequently suffered a decisive defeat and ceased to be the guiding light of Swedish foreign policy.

Neutrality and friendship with Germany

      In the wars between Prussia and Austria (Seven Weeks' War) in 1866 and between Germany and France (Franco-German War) in 1870–71, Sweden was officially neutral, even if in the latter the king's personal sympathies were with France. Oscar II (ruled 1872–1907) reoriented the country's foreign policy. The new German Empire, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck (Bismarck, Otto von), excited his admiration. At the same time, connections with Germany became much closer, and from the mid-1870s Swedish politics were influenced by a close friendship with Germany, which was emphasized during the last years of the 19th century by the growing fear of Russia.

The Swedish-Norwegian union

      From the Swedish viewpoint, the union with Norway was a disappointment. Instead of an alliance of the two countries, the incompatibilities grew, and the union was actually confined to a joint monarchy and foreign policy. One of the few positive results of the union was an 1825 statute that abolished or greatly reduced tariffs between the countries. The union also had an important influence on Sweden's domestic affairs, and Norway served as a model for Swedish radicals who demanded parliamentary democracy.

      As crown prince in the 1850s, Charles XV had promised the Norwegians that on his succession to the throne he would abolish the post of governor-general, which in Norway was regarded as a sign of the country's subordinate position in the union. In reality, the post of governor-general had not been occupied by a Swede since 1829 and had been vacant since 1855. When Charles XV succeeded to the throne, however, and tried to honour his pledge to abolish the post, the Swedish parliament and the government headed by the powerful minister of finance, Baron J.A. Gripenstedt, opposed the resolution. Charles XV was forced to give way. The government, with support from parliament, had thus strengthened its position over the king. The governor-general question marked the beginning of the struggle for power between king and parliament that characterized Sweden's internal politics for the rest of the 19th century. With the dissolution of the union in 1905, the king's power was again usurped, and a government chosen by the majority parties in parliament and headed by the right-wing leader Christian Lundeberg (Lundeberg, Christian) was appointed to negotiate with Norway. Thus, the dissolution of the union led to the first real parliamentary government in Sweden.

The 20th century

      The economic expansion that started in the early 19th century laid the foundations for internal developments in Sweden during the 20th century. The turning point came during and immediately after World War I. There was suddenly a worldwide demand for Swedish products such as steel and pulp, matches and ball bearings, telephones and vacuum cleaners. The composition of the population underwent a decisive change, and Sweden was transformed from an agricultural to a modern industrial country.

Political reform

 Politically, the economic development meant that a universal and equal franchise (suffrage) was more and more vociferously demanded. The issue was solved in 1907 by a compromise submitted by a Conservative government under the leadership of Arvid Lindman. The motion granted a universal and equal franchise for the second chamber, a certain democratization of the first chamber, and proportional representation for elections to both chambers of the Riksdag. The elections to the second chamber in 1911 produced a landslide victory for the Liberal Party, which had grown out of the Liberal Union of 1902, and Gustav V (ruled 1907–50) was forced to ask Karl Staaff to form a Liberal government.

Defense policy

      One of the most important points of Liberal policy in 1911 was a decrease in military expenditure. The realization of this demand led to sharp conflicts between Gustav V and Staaff. As the tension between the Great Powers grew, a farmers' rally was organized, and 30,000 farmers from all over the country sought out the king and demanded that the country's defenses be strengthened. In his reply (Borggårdstalet, the Courtyard Speech) the king promised to reinforce the military defenses. As he had given this pledge without having consulted the government, it resigned, and the king appointed a civil-servant government with Hjalmar Hammarskjöld (Hammarskjöld, Hjalmar) as prime minister.

Policy during World War I

      During World War I, Sweden attempted to remain neutral and to assert its right to trade with the belligerent countries. For Great Britain, the blockade was an important weapon, and Sweden's demand to import freely favoured Germany exclusively. As a result, the Allies stopped a large percentage of Sweden's trade. This, however, not only affected Sweden's exports to Germany but also from 1916 caused a severe shortage of food in Sweden. The situation was worsened by unrestricted submarine warfare and by the entry of the United States into the war in 1917. Hammarskjöld was forced to resign; he was followed by a Conservative government and shortly afterward by a Liberal one, both of which conducted a more-diplomatic trading policy with the Allies. In May 1918 an agreement was reached with Great Britain and the United States that allowed Sweden again to import produce from the West, on condition that exports to Germany be limited and that a large part of Sweden's merchant fleet be put at the Allies' disposal.

The Liberal–Social Democratic coalition

      In the general election of 1917, the left-wing parties (the Social Democrats and Liberals) secured a further increase in their majority in the second chamber, and the king was obliged to choose a Liberal–Social Democratic government. Under Nils Edén (Edén, Nils), the new government, as one of its first measures, amended the constitution. The main issues were suffrage for women and the introduction of a universal and equal franchise for elections to the first chamber and for local elections.

Domestic policy (1918–45)

Party politics

      From 1920 onward a line was drawn between the socialist parties on one side and the Liberals and Conservatives on the other. From 1920 to 1932 the parties held power alternately, but no government had any chance of gaining firm support for its policy in the Riksdag. From a political viewpoint the 1920s were a period of stagnation.

The economic climate

      From an economic point of view, however, the picture was quite different. The 1920s were marked by steadily improving trade conditions, and in this boom period Sweden was one of the countries that prospered significantly.

 Sweden suffered severely during the early years of the Great Depression. In the early 1930s unemployment rose, and reductions in wages caused a series of harsh labour conflicts. The election of 1932 brought a considerable advance to the Social Democratic Party (Swedish Social Democratic Party), and to some extent to the Farmers' Party as well, and led to a Social Democratic administration under the leadership of Per Albin Hansson (Hansson, Per Albin). It offered a comprehensive policy to fight the crisis, including extensive public works and a number of moves in support of agriculture. This policy was subjected to scathing criticism by the right-wing parties, but an agreement reached with the Farmers' Party in 1933 made it possible to implement the program. The economic crisis of the '30s was overcome more rapidly in Sweden than in most other countries. As early as 1936, wages had reached their old level, and by the end of the decade unemployment had become insignificant.

      From a political point of view, the '30s were a time of preparation, when a series of bills for radical reforms were worked out. The whole program could be summarized in the term folkhemmet, in which society is viewed as a “home” for the people, taking care of their needs in unemployment, sickness, and old age; but, with the advent of World War II in 1939, reforms were postponed because of rising military expenditure and supply difficulties.

Foreign policy (1918–45)

      When World War I ended, Russia and Germany were among the defeated nations, and Sweden thus found itself in an unusually good position regarding external security. In 1925 military expenditure was considerably reduced. Problems regarding foreign policy were confined to Sweden's application for membership in the League of Nations (Nations, League of), which was granted in 1920, and to its relationship with Finland.

      When the Finnish Civil War ended in 1918, the problem of Åland reemerged. The inhabitants of the Åland Islands (Finnish: Ahvenanmaa) were purely Swedish-speaking, and a plebiscite revealed that almost all were in favour of affiliation with Sweden. The League of Nations, however, decided in 1921 to award Finland sovereignty over the islands, though with certain conditions pertaining to internal self-government and limiting the right to fortify or otherwise utilize the islands for military purposes.

      Adolf Hitler (Hitler, Adolf)'s rise to power (Third Reich) in Germany resulted in a reexamination of Sweden's defense policy, which in 1936 was amended to strengthen the country's defenses. Sweden followed a strictly neutral course, in close collaboration with the other Scandinavian countries and The Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland. As a consequence, Hitler's proposal in the spring of 1939 for a nonaggression pact was rejected. Sweden's attempt to form a Nordic defense union or, failing that, a Swedish-Finnish alliance led to nothing, primarily because the Soviet Union objected.

      On the outbreak of war (World War II) in 1939, Sweden declared itself neutral. When the Soviet Union shortly afterward launched an attack (Russo-Finnish War) on Finland, Sweden gave Finland aid in the form of vast matériel and a volunteer corps. On the other hand, Sweden, in common with Norway, refused the Allies' request to march through its territory in order to intervene in the war. After the German occupation of Denmark and Norway in 1940, however, Sweden was forced by German military superiority to allow the transit of German troops through Sweden to Norway. Many Norwegians and Danes sought refuge in Sweden, the majority of them with the intention of fleeing to England. When Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, transit facilities were demanded for a division of German troops from Norway to Finland, and Sweden acquiesced under threat of military reprisals. In 1943 the agreement concerning the transit of German troops was revoked. Toward the end of the war, Norwegian and Danish police were trained and equipped in Sweden. Immediately after the war, Sweden was granted membership in the United Nations, without having relinquished its principally neutral foreign policy.

The welfare state

 The coalition government that was formed in 1939 was replaced shortly after the end of the war in 1945 by a Social Democratic government under the leadership of Per Albin Hansson (Hansson, Per Albin). After his death in 1946, Tage Erlander (Erlander, Tage) became prime minister, a post that he held until his resignation in 1969. He was succeeded by Olof Palme (Palme, Olof), who took over the leadership of the government without any other changes being made in its composition.

The period of social reform

      The period 1946 to 1950 may justly be called the great period of reform, during which new, comprehensive laws were adopted concerning old-age pensions, child allowances, health insurance, rent allowances, educational reforms, and the expansion of institutions of higher education and research. Those parts of the Social Democrats' postwar program that aimed at nationalization of industry were not carried through. By tax reorganization the government tried, however, to achieve wider distribution of wealth.

      Surprisingly, the years after World War II had been marked by stable trading conditions and a scarcity of labour. During the Korean War, the boom reached its climax, entailing large price increases and rapid inflation. A recession followed at the end of 1951. In Sweden this meant that the upward movement of prices and incomes was interrupted, and for the first time since World War II there was a rise in unemployment. Even though the crisis of 1951–52 was neither serious nor long, it drew attention to the problems of economic stability. The Social Democrats now became primarily preoccupied with securing the advances already achieved. They began to collaborate with the Farmers' Party, and in the autumn of 1951 the Social Democratic government was replaced by a coalition government consisting of Social Democrats and Farmers, which lasted until 1957.

      In the late 1950s the question of a compulsory pension for all employees became a principal political issue. The opposition fought it energetically, mainly because it was feared that control of the pension fund would create a latent risk of complete socialism; the government finally enacted the bill in 1959.

New constitution

      In 1955 a committee to review the constitution of 1809 (the Instrument of Government) was appointed. On its recommendations, the old two-chamber Riksdag was replaced in 1971 by a one-chamber Riksdag composed of 350 members elected by proportional representation. The new Instrument of Government, which entered into force on Jan. 1, 1975, reduced the membership of the Riksdag to 349 (to minimize the risk of evenly divided votes) and the voting age to 18. It also further curtailed the powers and duties of the king to a point merely ceremonial. King Carl XVI Gustaf, who succeeded Gustav VI Adolf in 1973, was the first king to serve under the new constitution.

Foreign policy into the 1990s

      Sweden's foreign policy since 1945 has remained strictly neutral (neutralism). When the international situation became tense in 1948 during the Berlin blockade and airlift, the Swedish government took the initiative in negotiations on a defense alliance between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. Sweden insisted that the alliance should be truly independent of the Great Powers, while Norway wanted cooperation with the Western powers; as a result, negotiations came to nothing. In accordance with its policy of neutrality, Sweden did not apply for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), although it did pursue its policy of liberalizing trade by participating in the establishment of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1959. In addition, Scandinavian collaboration was intensified by the Nordic Council (Nordic Council of Ministers), which was formally inaugurated in 1952. Among the important results of the council's work were the dropping of passport requirements between the Scandinavian countries, the creation of a free-labour market, and the establishment of a far-reaching coordination of economic and social legislation. On the other hand, plans for a Nordic customs union, which were discussed during the 1960s and which aimed at more extensive cooperation than already existed within the framework of EFTA, produced no result. The so-called Nordek plan, submitted in 1969, which also aimed at far-reaching economic cooperation between the Nordic countries, met with opposition, primarily from Finland, and was abandoned in 1970. During negotiations for entry into the European Communities (European Community) (EC, later European Community; the successor of the EEC), in which Denmark and Norway took part in 1971, Sweden repeated its declaration that it did not intend to seek membership, on the grounds of neutrality. But the expansion of the EC and the plans for a closer integration of the EC nations made it more and more difficult for Sweden to carry out its policy. Finally, after the dissolution of the U.S.S.R. made the Swedish policy of neutrality obsolete, Sweden applied for membership in the EC in 1991, joining in 1995 after it had been reorganized and embedded in the newly formed European Union (EU).

Domestic affairs into the 21st century

      In the election of 1970 the Social Democrats lost the absolute majority they had held since 1968. But in spite of this the Social Democratic government of Palme (Palme, Olof), with the support of the Communists, continued in office until the election of 1976, when the nonsocialist parties won a majority. Palme's resignation brought an end to 44 years of Social Democratic domination.

      Nonsocialists formed governments from 1976 to 1982, the first coalition being led by Thorbjörn Fälldin (Fälldin, Thorbjörn) (Centre Party). His government felt repercussions of the international economic crisis of the 1970s, manifested in unemployment and adverse effects on the standard of living. Political discussion, however, focused above all on the question of nuclear power. Fälldin, who had campaigned for the cessation of building nuclear power plants, was forced to compromise on this issue. As a result, he resigned in October 1978. Ola Ullsten, leader of the People's Party (widely known as the Liberal Party and officially the Liberal People's Party from 1990), succeeded him as prime minister, forming a minority government in which one-third of the ministers were women. Following a general election in 1979, the nonsocialist coalition led by Fälldin was returned to office.

      The development of nuclear power (nuclear energy) continued to be a hotly debated issue. A national referendum on the issue was held in 1980, with the government considering gradually discontinuing its nuclear power plants. Since then, public opinion generally has been supportive of the continued use of nuclear power, even though the government has decommissioned some plants.

      Throughout the 1980s, political debate focused on economic problems, particularly those related to escalating inflation, an unfavourable international trade balance, and unemployment. These problems grew more severe as a result of worldwide changes in the methods of processing raw materials and in industrial production that developed from the beginning of the 1970s. Changes of this kind created economic difficulties throughout Sweden's industrial complex, including such major sectors as textile manufacturing, iron- and steelmaking, shipbuilding, and mining. Escalating unemployment generated by the economic downturn was especially significant during 1980–83 and at the beginning of the 1990s.

      Unemployment became a central issue of the 1982 parliamentary elections, along with the deficit and a proposal by the Social Democrats to establish a wage-earner investment fund. The Social Democrats won a resounding victory in the elections, and a new government was formed by Palme. The elections signaled a new polarization of Swedish politics, with the Moderate Party (as the Conservative Party had been known since 1969) gaining a significant number of new seats in the Riksdag, while the Liberals lost almost half of their representation.

      The new government quickly took strong steps to alleviate the country's economic stagnation, including an increase in the value-added tax (VAT) and a sharp decrease in the value of the national currency, the krona. Simultaneously, pressures were brought to bear on employers to resist workers' demands for higher wages to offset the resulting price increases. Signs of recovery began to appear in response to the government's measures and also as a result of the improving international economic scene in 1983–84. Taxation rose to a very high level, however, as a result of the large budget deficit and rapidly growing employment in the public sector. At the same time, a controversial issue developed over the legislation for the wage-earner investment fund that the Social Democrats and the Communists had managed to push through the Riksdag in late 1983, in spite of unified resistance from the nonsocialist parties and the business community. The opposing groups feared that the legislation would move Sweden too heavily in the direction of socialism. After their implementation the employee funds appeared not to affect the economic system in any appreciable way. Although they suffered some losses, the socialist parties continued to hold a majority of the seats in the Riksdag after the 1985 election. The most significant outcome of the election was a strong advance by the Liberal Party, which had come under new leadership.

      On Feb. 28, 1986, Prime Minister Palme was assassinated, shocking a country unused to political violence (this was the first political assassination in modern Swedish history). He was replaced by Ingvar Carlsson, the deputy prime minister, who, although a less-dynamic figure, shared Palme's political philosophy. Without Palme, however, Sweden's role in the arena of international politics, where it had championed human rights and promoted peace and disarmament, diminished.

      The 1988 election did not change the political picture greatly. Nonetheless, the Green Ecology Party garnered 5.5 percent of the vote, exceeding the 4 percent minimum required to enter the parliament. The domestic policy of the Social Democratic government was characterized by concessions to a more liberal program carried through with the support of the Liberal Party. For example, there was a considerable reduction in direct taxes on income, and a program for an energy policy for the future was developed.

      The September 1991 election, on the other hand, resulted in a major change in Swedish politics. With the country mired in a recession, the Social Democrats were swept from office. The main victor in this election was the Moderate Party, under the leadership of Carl Bildt. The Moderates received 22.1 percent of the vote and took 80 seats in the Riksdag, while the Social Democrats lost 18 seats. As a result, the nonsocialist parties controlled 170 seats (not a majority) against only a combined 154 for the Social Democrats and the Left Party (the former Communist Party). Prime Minister Carlsson immediately resigned, and a nonsocialist coalition government was formed by Bildt. He had campaigned on a platform of directing Sweden's economy away from socialism and toward a free-market system. His centre-right coalition immediately proposed privatizing state-owned companies, cutting taxes and government spending, and lifting restrictions on foreign ownership of Swedish companies.

      With the recession continuing, the Social Democrats returned to office in September 1994 again under Carlsson's leadership. He attempted to reduce both Sweden's enormous budget deficit—which had reached 13 percent of gross domestic product—and its 13 percent unemployment rate. With the Soviet Union's collapse having rendered Sweden's traditional neutrality obsolete, Carlsson also pursued membership in the EU, despite opposition from within his own party and from environmentalists. On Nov. 13, 1994, 52 percent of voters backed EU membership, and Sweden officially joined in 1995. However, notwithstanding the favourable recommendation of a government commission, Prime Minister Göran Persson (Persson, Göran) (who succeeded Carlsson in 1996 after his retirement) cited public opposition and rejected adoption of the euro, Europe's single currency, when it went into effect in 1999.

      By the end of 1999, Sweden had emerged from its economic crisis. A number of economic changes occurred in the late 1990s, reflecting a profound change in the concept of folkhemmet and shifting more economic responsibility from the central government to the provinces and municipalities and from the state to the individual. Although the Social Democratic Party's share of the vote dropped from 45.3 percent in 1994 to 39.8 percent in 2002, Persson was able to continue as prime minister. While still Sweden's largest political party, it was increasingly divided on such important issues as the September 2003 referendum on the replacement of the krona with the euro, which voters overwhelmingly rejected. That same month the public stabbing of Anna Lindh, the popular minister of foreign affairs, shocked Swedes and again raised questions about the price of an open and egalitarian society.

      Despite a thriving economy, growing concerns about Sweden's ability to maintain its strong social welfare programs while remaining competitive in the globalized economy contributed to the victory of the Moderate Party, under the leadership of Frederik Reinfeldt, in a tightly contested election in 2006.

Jörgen Weibull Susan Ruth Larson

Additional Reading

Geography

General works

Axel Sømme (ed.), A Geography of Norden: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, new rev. ed. (1968), is a broad survey written by local geographers. A wealth of information is found in National Atlas of Sweden (1990– ), a multivolume publication under the auspices of the Department of Geography of Stockholm University, integrating maps, figures, and text. Information specifically on Sweden is available from the Swedish Institute, the Swedish government's official information portal, which offers Fact Sheets on Sweden, Sweden in Brief, Sweden in Fact.

Economy

The Swedish Economy: Facts and Figures (annual) is one of the Swedish Institute publications; as are Daniel Viklund, Sweden and the European Community: Trade, Cooperation, and Policy Issues, trans. from Swedish (1989); and Gunnar Sjöstedt, Sweden's Free Trade Policy: Balancing Economic Growth and Security (1987). More comprehensive and detailed analyses include Barry P. Bosworth et al., The Swedish Economy (1987); and Staffan Marklund, Paradise Lost?: The Nordic Welfare States and the Recession, 1975–1985 (1988).

Government and social conditions

The government system is described and analyzed in Peter Esaiasson and Sören Holmberg, Representation from Above: Members of Parliament and Representative Democracy in Sweden, trans. from Swedish (1996); Eric Lindström, The Swedish Parliamentary System: How Responsibilities Are Divided and Decisions Are Made, 2nd ed. (1983; originally published in Swedish, 1981); Ibrahim Ismail Wahab, The Swedish Institution of Ombudsman: An Instrument of Human Rights (1979); and Agne Gustafsson, Local Government in Sweden, trans. from Swedish, new ed. (1988). The dynamics of political background are explored in Gunnar Boalt and Ulla Bergryd, Political Value Patterns and Parties in Sweden (1981); and Mona Rosendahl, Conflict and Compliance: Class Consciousness Among Swedish Workers (1985). Concise surveys of particular political and social issues include Krister Wahlbäck, The Roots of Swedish Neutrality (1986); Walter Korpi, The Development of the Swedish Welfare State in a Comparative Perspective (1990); Britta Stenholm, The Swedish School System (1984; originally published in Swedish, 1984); and National Board of Health and Welfare, The Swedish Health Services in the 1990s (1985). Books dealing with the law include Stig Strömholm, An Introduction to Swedish Law, 2nd ed. (1988); National Council for Crime Prevention, Crime and Criminal Policy in Sweden (1990); and Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Anders Bruzelius, Civil Procedure in Sweden (1965).

Culture

Central Board of National Antiquities, The Cultural Heritage in Sweden, trans. from Swedish (1981), surveys conservation and restoration work on historic sites and buildings. Informative historical studies include Mereth Lindgren et al., A History of Swedish Art, trans. from Swedish (1987); and Ingemar Algulin, A History of Swedish Literature (1989). Other publications of the Swedish Institute cover numerous aspects of cultural life: Ingemar Algulin, Contemporary Swedish Prose (1983); Ingemar Liman, Traditional Festivities in Sweden (1983); Henrik Sjögren, Stage and Society in Sweden: Aspects of Swedish Theatre Since 1945, trans. from Swedish (1979); Peter Cowie, Swedish Cinema, from Ingeborg Holm to Fanny and Alexander (1985); Monica Boman and Bertil Lundgren (eds.), Design in Sweden (1985; originally published in Swedish, 1985); and Nils K. Ståhle, Alfred Nobel and the Nobel Prizes, 3rd rev. ed. (1989). Claes Caldenby, Olof Hultin, Gunilla Linde Bjur, Johan Mårtelius, and Rasmus Wærn, A Guide to Swedish Architecture (2001).Staffan Helmfrid

History

General works

Broad surveys spanning the centuries include Ingvar Andersson, A History of Sweden, 2nd ed. (1970; originally published in Swedish, 1944); Byron J. Nordstrom, The History of Sweden (2002); Franklin D. Scott, Sweden, the Nation's History, enlarged ed. (1988); Lars Magnusson, An Economic History of Sweden (2000); and Sten Carlsson and Jerker Rosén, Svensk historia, 2 vol. (1961–62).

Early periods

Interpretations of runic inscriptions provide a glimpse of the early periods of history in Sven B.F. Jansson, The Runes of Sweden, trans. from Swedish (1962). Also informative is Mats Widgren, Settlement and Farming Systems in the Early Iron Age: A Study of Fossil Agrarian Landscapes in Östergötland, Sweden (1983). Medieval times are studied in P.H. Sawyer, Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, AD 700–1100 (1982); and Svend Gissel et al., Desertion and Land Colonization in the Nordic Countries c. 1300–1600 (1981).

Modern history

Other period histories are Michael Roberts, The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden, 1523–1611 (1968, reprinted 1986), and Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden, 1611–1631, 2 vol. (1953–1958); Curt Weibull, Christina of Sweden, trans. from Swedish (1966); Michael Roberts (ed.), Sweden's Age of Greatness, 1632–1718 (1973); and R.M. Hatton, Charles XII of Sweden (1968).Focus on the 19th century is provided in Roger Miller and Torvald Gerger, Social Change in 19th-Century Swedish Agrarian Society (1985); and Raymond E. Lindgren, Norway-Sweden: Union, Disunion, and Scandinavian Integration (1959, reprinted 1979). Broad topical analyses provide views ranging into the 20th century: Steven Koblik (ed.), Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence, 1750–1970 (1975; originally published in Swedish, 1973); Kurt Samuelsson, From Great Power to Welfare State: 300 Years of Swedish Social Development (1968; originally published in Swedish, 1968); Lennart Jörberg, Growth and Fluctuations of Swedish Industry, 1869–1912: Studies in the Process of Industrialisation, trans. from Swedish (1961); W.M. Carlgren, Swedish Foreign Policy During the Second World War (1977; originally published in Swedish, 1973); O. Fritiof Ander, The Building of Modern Sweden: The Reign of Gustav V, 1907–1950 (1958); Allan Pred, Even in Sweden: Racisms, Racialized Spaces, and the Popular Geographical Imagination (2000); Mauricio Rojas, Beyond the Welfare State: Sweden and the Quest for a Post-industrial Welfare Model (2001); and Lene Hansen & Ole Wæver (eds.), European Integration and National Identity: the Challenge of the Nordic States (2002).Susan Ruth Larson

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