Pyrenees

—Pyrenean, adj.

/pir"euh neez'/, n.

a mountain range between Spain and France. Highest peak, Pic de Néthou, 11,165 ft. (3400 m).

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Mountain range, southwestern Europe.

It extends 270 mi (430 km) from the Mediterranean Sea to the Bay of Biscay on the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees form a high wall between France and Spain; generally, the crest of the range marks the boundary between the two countries. The tiny, autonomous principality of Andorra lies among the range's peaks. The highest point is Aneto Peak, elevation 11,169 ft (3,404 m). There are few passes through the mountains. The pass at Roncesvalles was made famous in the 12th-century La Chanson de Roland, based on the 778 Battle of Roncesvalles (Roncevaux).

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▪ mountain range, Europe

Introduction

Spanish  Pirineos,  French  Pyrénées,  Catalan  Pireneus 

      mountain chain of southwestern Europe that consists of flat-topped massifs and folded linear ranges. It stretches from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Bay of Biscay on the Atlantic Ocean on the west. The Pyrenees form a high wall between France and Spain that has played a significant role in the history of both countries and of Europe as a whole. The range is some 270 miles (430 kilometres) long; it is barely six miles wide at its eastern end, but at its centre it reaches some 80 miles in width. At its western end it blends imperceptibly into the Cantabrian Mountains along the northern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Except in a few places, where Spanish territory juts northward or French southward, the crest of the chain marks the boundary between the two countries, though the tiny, autonomous principality of Andorra lies among its peaks. The highest point is Aneto Peak, at 11,169 feet (3,404 metres), in the Maladeta (Spanish: “Accursed”) massif of the Central Pyrenees.

      The Pyrenees long have been a formidable land barrier between Spain and Portugal on the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of Europe; as a consequence, these two countries traditionally have developed stronger associations with Africa than with the rest of Europe, and they have become tied to the sea. From Carlit Peak (9,584 feet) near the eastern limit of the Pyrenees to the peaks of Orhy and Anie, a succession of mountains rise nearly 9,800 feet; at only a few places, all well to the west, can the chain be crossed through passes lower than 6,500 feet. In both the lower eastern and northwestern sectors, rivers dissect the landscape into numerous small basins. The range is flanked on both sides by broad depressions—the Aquitaine and Languedoc to the north and the Ebro to the south—both receiving waters from the major rivers flowing out of the mountains, the Garonne of France and the major tributaries of the Ebro of Spain.

Physical features

Geology

      The Pyrenees represent the geologic renewal of an old mountain chain rather than a more recent and vigorous mountain-building process that characterizes the Alps. Some 500 million years ago the region now occupied by the Pyrenees was covered with the folded mountains created during the Paleozoic era, called the Hercynian (Hercynian orogenic belt), of which the Massif Central in France and the Meseta Central in Spain are but two remnants. Although these other massifs have had a comparatively quiet history of internal deformation, or tectonism, since their emergence, the Pyrenean block was submerged in a relatively unstable area of the Earth's crust that became active about 225 million years ago.

      The earliest formations, which were sediments severely folded over a granitic base, were submerged and covered by secondary sediments. They later were lifted once again into two parallel chains running to the north and south of the original Hercynian massif. These became the two zones of pre-Pyrenean ridges—of which the Spanish is the more fully developed—that are now great spurs of the main chain of the Pyrenees.

      Under the forces of folding, the more recent and comparatively more plastic layers folded without breaking, but the original rigid base fractured and became dislocated. In the vicinity of the breaks, hot springs appeared and some metal-containing deposits formed. This upheaval affected chiefly the central and eastern regions. During this era, erosion continued incessantly, and, in the most exposed of the raised areas, weathering wore away the softer terrain and uncovered the old Hercynian sedimentary formations, occasionally reaching the deeper granitic bedrock.

      Even today the old rocks, slates, schists, limestones transformed into marble (all of which come from old sediments transformed by great pressures and enormous heat), and granites of various kinds make up the spine, or axial zone, of the chain. The geologic phases of this zone, which rises and widens from west to east and ends by sinking, with a steep drop of nearly 9,800 feet, into the depths of the Mediterranean, have determined the evolution of the massif as a whole.

Physiography

      The structure of the Pyrenees is characterized by patterns of relief and of underlying structure running in a north–south sequence (like the base rock); these alternate with depressions, some of which are the result of internal deformations, others of erosion of less resistant overlying deposits. In a cross section directly through the central area, where the tectonic activity reached its fullest width and development, it is possible to distinguish, from north to south, two strips of the comparatively recent pre-Pyrenean fold, one Spanish and one French, in juxtaposition with the axial massifs. An outer strip to the north consists of folds constituting the Petites Pyrénées. Cut into channels, they permit the passage of rivers. Nearer the middle of the range rise the Inner Ridges, represented by the mighty cliffs of the Ariège, which contain the primary, or granitic, axial zones. On the Spanish side the series is repeated in the opposite direction, but it is more highly developed and thicker. Thus the Interior Ridges—e.g., Mount Perdido and the massif of Collarada—are sometimes higher than the neighbouring primary axial peaks. They are followed, to the south, by a broad, pre-Pyrenean, middle depression, with a succession of marine and continental deposits of varying hardness that constitute the valleys of such tributaries of the Ebro as the Aragón. This depression continues across the rest of the pre-Pyrenean ridges, among which are new secondary outcrops that form the fringe of Exterior Ridges and the northern rim of the depression of the Ebro; they are not, however, as thick or as important as the Interior Ridges.

      From the structure of their relief and from the climatic conditions (especially on the south) that derive from the geographic situation of the chain, the Pyrenees have been divided into three natural regions: the Eastern (or Mediterranean), Pyrenees, the Central Pyrenees, and the Western Pyrenees. The different vegetation, the linguistic divisions of the people, and—to a point—certain ethnic and cultural distinctions appear to confirm this classification.

Drainage

      The hydrographic system consists basically of series of parallel valleys that descend from the high peaks and from the passes. They are bordered by high, dividing ridges in a north–south direction, perpendicular to the axis of the chain. This type of valley produces short, torrential rivers that drop precipitously over short stretches; only seldom do these rivers flow, like the Aragón, through valleys that, as in the Alps, have both gentle slope and greater length. Their flow, extremely variable, especially on the southern side, is heavily influenced by the climate, as well as by the relief. Different maximum low waters occur in summer and winter; the spring, with maximum rain and melting snow, usually sees the greatest flows. In the Western Pyrenees and the northern zone, the rainfall pattern helps produce greater regularity; hence, flow is only slightly lower in summer. On the south a few torrential rivers are fed principally by melting snows, a few largely by rain, but most from a combination of sources. Heavy rains occasionally cause severe flooding in the region.

      The river patterns and flow have been important since antiquity in human use of both the land and the rivers—from the floating of timber rafts downstream, which can be done only in the spring, to harnessing waterpower for industry and irrigation on the southern side by means of dams. The torrential flow of many of the rivers is the cause both of the purity of the Pyrenean waters and of their excellence and richness as fishing streams.

      The present Pyrenean glaciers, perhaps more frequent on the northern than on the southern slopes, have been reduced to high basins—cirques or hanging valleys—at elevations over 9,800 feet. During and after the great Ice Ages (i.e., within the past 2.5 million years), however, especially in the Central and much of the Eastern Pyrenees, glaciers left widespread erosion and various important sediments. The present-day lower lakes and idyllic meadows with their winding rivulets are among their marks. Glacier tongues were also the main causes of the deep valleys containing the river system.

      The fractured areas have many hot springs (hot spring), both sulfurous and saline. The former are found throughout the axial massif, while the latter occur at the edges. These springs were popular in Roman times and reorganized and modernized toward the end of the 19th century. There are more than 20 famous spas on the French side; those in Spain are as numerous but are less fully exploited.

Climate

      Major factors in the climate are the two abutting bodies of water and the extensive continental areas to the north and south. The Atlantic influence penetrates southward across the low peaks of the Western Pyrenees, as far south as Pamplona, Spain, tempering somewhat the differences of climate between the northern and southern slopes. This is not the case in the rest of the chain, especially the Central Pyrenees. The contrast in humidity between the French and Spanish sides is remarkable. To the north the oceanic influence, meeting no obstacles on the French plains of the Aquitaine, penetrates eastward and goes a little beyond the north–south watershed of the French rivers flowing into the Mediterranean. To the east the levanters (levanter), winds from the east and southeast, carry damp air from the Mediterranean, some of which falls as precipitation over the southeastern part of the eastern spurs. As a result, these regions are humid, while to the northeast the French depression of the Roussillon acquires Mediterranean characteristics.

      South of the Central Pyrenees the valley of the Ebro—which runs in a general northwest–southeast direction and is blocked by the southwest–northeast-trending Catalonian ranges near the eastern coast of Spain—acts as a “little continent.” Hence, its climate is one of great thermal contrasts that are exaggerated by the generally high altitude of the Iberian Peninsula, but it is Mediterranean and unlike anything known in other European countries. Thus, the variegated climatic pattern of the Pyrenees ranges from the limpid, sunny atmosphere of the continental zone to the mild mists of the northwest and includes all transition stages in between.

Plant and animal life

      Forms of life in the Pyrenees have some remarkable characteristics that cannot be explained merely by the influences of climate and soil. The historical vicissitudes of the chain and its isolation at the southwestern limit of the main European peninsula, far from the centres of dispersion and variation of the various species (including humans), have influenced the structure and character of its population.

      In the northwest–southeast direction, the vegetation shows a marked and gradually decreasing oceanic influence; the contrary is the case with the Mediterranean influence from southeast to northwest. The exposure of the mountain surfaces and the conditions of local climate caused by mountain relief create special localized enclaves of all kinds. The most characteristic feature of the oceanic influence is the predominance of broad-leaved deciduous trees in the forests of the lower levels and the medium-height mountains, while the Mediterranean influence, represented by evergreen broad-leaved trees, not only is dominant in hot surroundings but also bears drought conditions better.

      The variety of altitudinal vegetation shows itself in levels. From the medium-height mountain upward, the broad-leaved woods at about 5,200 feet are replaced by needled conifers that require less water. The subalpine level, sometimes as low as 6,500 feet but usually above 7,800 feet, gives way to the more sparsely covered pastures of the alpine level. This altitudinal scheme pertains in the vegetation east of the Orhy and Anie peaks. The oceanic influence, however, with its greater rainfall gives the west of the chain a different pattern. Broad-leaved deciduous beeches may be found as high as 5,850 feet, with some mix of the subalpine conifers, and there the high pastures are more resistant to damp and permanent snow. Overall the landscape is more like that of the high mountains of western Europe.

      The Mediterranean influence expands through the entire valley of the Ebro, but it acquires marked signs of a more variable continental climate in the Central Pyrenees. There, great quantities of mountain pines, which are more drought-resistant, take the place of deciduous trees in the higher, colder, and drier parts of the medium and higher levels of the southern slopes.

      Some groups among the fauna, such as the cave-dwelling animals and frogs and toads, represent a migratory wave that came from ancient Tyrrhenia—associated with Corsica and Sardinia—and displaced certain native European species, relegating them to the Cantabrian Mountains. The Pyrenean fauna is rich today in larger herbivores as well as in the variety and abundance of predators. Some species, such as the wolf, lynx, and brown bear, have disappeared or had their numbers severely reduced in the northern Pyrenees, although the marmot has been successfully reintroduced. The southern Pyrenees, however, represent one of the last important reserves for wild European fauna driven out of sectors more heavily populated by humans. The present distribution and differentiation of large, warm-blooded animals is undoubtedly connected with the climate and the landscape, but the central-European origin of Pyrenean fauna is clear; for example, of the two species of desman (a semiaquatic member of the mole family), one inhabits the Pyrenees and the other southwestern Russia.

      Similar comments may be made as to the origin of all cold-blooded animals as well as of the vegetation. Basic differentiations exist among the latter. Pyrenean flora of tropical origin differentiated without any ancient European competition as the new chain replaced the old Hercynian; flora of Arctic origin, brought southward during relatively recent ice ages, are represented by two different branches of orophiles, or plants adapted to mountain life, from central Europe and from Siberia. Other orophiles have long been differentiated, but they are of Mediterranean origin and are dominant in the drier, sunnier parts of the southern slopes. An Atlantic group of flora predominates in the Western Pyrenees.

People and economy

      The Pyrenees are the home of a variety of peoples, including the Andorrans, Catalans, Béarnais, and Basques (Basque). Each speaks its own dialect or language, and each desires to maintain and even augment its own autonomy while at the same time acknowledging a general unity among Pyrenean peoples. Of these groups, only the Andorrans have anything approaching a sovereign state, and even then Andorra is an autonomous principality with close ties to both Spain and France. The Basques, perhaps the best-known Pyrenean people, speak a language that is non-Indo-European and have a long tradition of fiercely defending their autonomy.

      The people of the Pyrenees traditionally have depended on agriculture and livestock raising for their livelihood. The factors that influenced the development of Pyrenean flora also influenced traditional land usage, the kind of crops raised, and the farming system of each district. Typical Mediterranean products such as wines, vegetables, and fruits predominate in the Eastern Pyrenees and at the foot of the chain's southern slope, while in the Western and Central Pyrenees, with their abundant rainfall, potatoes, sweet corn, and forage crops are grown. Livestock breeding, the other essential element of the traditional economy, consists of a seasonal process of moving flocks of sheep and cows up and down the mountains and also using as well as possible the meadows of the valley bottoms and the pastures of the higher altitudes, depending on the snow cover. Frequently in winter, the livestock herds travel far from the Pyrenees, moving to the plains of the Ebro, near the Mediterranean Sea in Languedoc, or to the moors of Aquitaine.

      This traditional organization—in which the common exploitation of forest areas for timber also played a large part—has been disappearing slowly. Few young people have been willing to settle into the old ways. Gradually, the less fertile plots have been deserted, and the landscape has become dotted by patches of brooms and brackens and plantings of resinous trees. Even local breeds of sheep or cows have been superseded by imported breeds, which perhaps are more profitable but are less adapted to the climate and the relief. Except for such areas as the Basque Country of Spain and the Roussillon region of France, the agriculture of the Pyrenees is in serious decline.

      The growing weakness of the Pyrenean agriculture has not been matched by growth in industry. Although the Pyrenees offer considerable hydroelectric potential, the mining of some resources, and an appreciable and diverse supply of wood, most of the mills (steel and paper) and factories (textiles, chemicals, and shoes) established in the 19th and 20th centuries have faced the threat of closing. Except in the two extremities of the chain, most of the industries are far from any major transportation routes. Scarcely any railroads and no major highways traverse the region, although an express highway is slowly being built between Toulouse, Fr., and Barcelona, Spain. Financed by foreign capital and dependent on the aid of the Spanish and French governments, the remaining factories face an uncertain future.

      Policies formulated in the 20th century by the two Pyrenean countries helped to both develop and protect the mountains, which have been transformed by a tremendous increase in tourism. Although a boon to the local economy, the crowds of people seeking winter sports, summer sojourns, hunting and fishing, and visits to the national parks of the Central Pyrenees have also contributed to the abandonment of traditional ways of life.

Study and exploration

      For centuries a general lack of knowledge about the Pyrenees permitted repetition of the errors and misconceptions about the mountains that had been propounded by such authors of antiquity as Diodorus Siculus of Sicily and the Greek geographer-historian Strabo (both 1st century BC). In 1582 the first explorations were made, followed by botanical works from the academies at Montpellier-de-Médillan, Fr., and by other studies, including those of the 18th-century Swiss physicist, geologist, and explorer Horace Bénédict de Saussure. The earliest military map of the region dates from 1719, while early topographical studies were the bases of frontier treaties.

      In the 19th century the first topographical and geologic maps were made of the mountains, the latter beginning a series of geologic interpretations and controversies among French and Spanish scientists. German studies added to the interpretive geology, but only in 1933 was the first study made that was based on modern research methods. Since World War II, scientists and scholars from universities, technical institutes, and national councils for research in France and Spain have thoroughly explored the Pyrenees and have produced a wealth of knowledge about the massif.

Frédéric Ogé Ed.

Additional Reading

General surveys include the classic works Henry Myhill, The Spanish Pyrenees (1966); François Taillefer (ed.), Les Pyrénées: de la montagne à l'homme (1974); Georges Viers, Les Pyrénées, 3rd ed. (1973); and Claude Dendaletche, Pyrénées (1982). Paul G. Bahn, Pyrenean Prehistory: A Palaeoeconomic Survey of the French Sites (1983); and Daniel Alexander Gómez-Ibáñez, The Western Pyrenees: Differential Evolution of the French and Spanish Borderland (1975), are historical geographies. Works on human geography include Neil Lands, History, People, and Places in the French Pyrenees (1980); and Martin F. Price, Mountain Research in Europe: An Overview of MAB [Man and the Biosphere] Research from the Pyrenees to Siberia (1995). Bob Gibbons and Paul Davies, The Pyrenees (1990), is a broad overview for the general reader.Thomas M. Poulsen

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