owl

—owllike, adj.

/owl/, n.

1. any of numerous, chiefly nocturnal birds of prey, of the order Strigiformes, having a broad head with large, forward-directed eyes that are usually surrounded by disks of modified feathers: many populations are diminishing owing to loss of habitat.

2. one of a breed of domestic pigeons having an owllike appearance.

3. See night owl.

4. a person of owllike solemnity or appearance.

adj.

5. operating late at night or all night: an owl train.

[bef. 900; ME oule, OE ule; c. LG ule, D uil; akin to G Eule, ON ugla]

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I

Any of the mostly nocturnal birds of prey in the order Strigiformes: typical owls (family Strigidae), barn and grass owls (Tytonidae), and bay owls (Phodilidae).

Their virtually noiseless flight and protective (usually brown) coloration aid in capturing insects, birds, and small mammals. Owls have round, forward-looking eyes, a sharply hooked beak, and acute hearing and vision. They are 5–28 in. (13–70 cm) long. Some species have a disk framing the face or ear tufts that help locate prey by reflecting sound to the ears. Owls can turn their head 180° (some species can turn as much as 270°). They nest in buildings, trees, or on the ground. Typical owls occur worldwide except in Antarctica. See also horned owl, screech owl, snowy owl.

II

(as used in expressions)

barn owl

great horned owl

horned owl

screech owl

snowy owl

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▪ bird

Introduction

 any member of a homogeneous order of primarily nocturnal raptors found nearly worldwide.

      The bird of Athena, the Greek goddess of practical reason, is the little owl (Athene noctua). Owls became symbolic of intelligence because it was thought that they presaged events. On the other hand, because of their nocturnal existence and ominous hooting sounds, owls have also been symbols associated with the occult and the otherworldly. Their secretive habits, quiet flight, and haunting calls have made them the objects of superstition and even fear in many parts of the world. In the Middle Ages the little owl was used as a symbol of the “darkness” before the coming of Christ; by further extension it was used to symbolize a nonbeliever who dwells in this darkness. Similarly the barn owl (Tyto alba) was looked upon as a bird of ill omen, and it subsequently became a symbol of disgrace. Scientific study of owls is difficult owing to their silent nighttime activity, with the result that the ecology, behaviour, and taxonomy of many species remain poorly understood.

General features

  The size range of owls is about the same as that of their day-active counterparts, the hawks, with lengths of about 13–70 cm (5–28 inches) and wingspans between 0.3–2.0 metres (1–6.6 feet). Most owl species are at the lower end of the size range. Owls apparently feed only on animals. Rodents are the most common prey; the smaller species, however, eat insects. All owls have the same general appearance, which is characterized by a flat face with a small hooked beak and large, forward-facing eyes. The tail is short and the wings are rounded. Like the diurnal birds of prey (bird of prey) (order Falconiformes (falconiform)), they have large feet with sharp talons. Diversity occurs in size, in the presence or absence of “ear” tufts, and in the shape of the plumage around the face.

      Owls are found on all continents except Antarctica and on most oceanic islands. Some, such as the barn owl (Tyto alba) and the short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), are among the most widely distributed birds; others, such as the Palau owl (Pyrroglaux podargina) and the Seychelles owl (Otus insularis), are endemic island species with small populations. Owls often attain higher population densities than hawks and have survived better in areas of human activity. Their nocturnal habits and inconspicuous daytime behaviour provide them some protection from shooting. The greatest population densities are attained by small, territorial, insectivorous species, with pairs spaced about 200 metres (660 feet) apart in suitable woodland.

Natural history

Ecology

 Owls utilize virtually all habitats, from grassland and tundra to dense woodland and rainforest. The distribution and density of most species seem to be limited by the availability of suitable nesting sites, rather than by the number of potential prey animals. In general the type of prey taken is dictated by the size of the owl and by the relative abundance of potential prey. Owls that hunt over grassland, such as the barn owl and short-eared owl, hunt by sustained flight, dropping into the grass to catch rodents. Many woodland owls secure prey by dropping from perches at the edges of forest openings. The Southeast Asian hawk owl (Ninox scutulata) sallies from a perch to take flying insects. The whiskered owl (Otus trichopsis) takes flying insects in foliage. fish owls (Ketupa and Scotopelia) are adapted for taking live fish but also eat other animals. Specialized forms of feeding behaviour have been observed in some owls. The elf owl (Micrathene whitneyi), for instance, has been seen hovering before blossoms, where it scares insects into flight with its wings and then catches them with its beak. A bay owl (Phodilus badius) has been documented stationing itself within a cave to catch bats as they issued forth at dusk. A variety of owls may depend on a single prey species when it becomes exceptionally abundant. Prey is generally swallowed whole, and indigestible material, such as feathers, fur, and bones, are regurgitated in the form of a compact pellet.

Behaviour

 Sound is important to owls, especially in mating and territorial defense. Camouflage, daytime immobility, and silent flight may combine to make it as difficult for owls to see each other as it is for natural enemies and human observers to see them. Usual owl sounds include snaps of the bill, claps of the wings in flight, and a variety of vocalizations (birdsong), with pitches, timbres, and rhythms unique to each species. Pitch differs between sexes (the female higher). Although less melodious than the calls of some birds, the vocalizations of many owls are “songs” in the biological sense and can even be musical to the human ear. The song varies from deep hoots in some large species to chirps, whistles, or warblings in many small owls. When nestlings of the burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia) are threatened, the young emit a call that resembles the warning buzz of a rattlesnake—a frequent inhabitant of rodent burrows.

      In North American screech owls (genus Otus), a duet that seems to reinforce the pair bond starts with a special song by the male. He is eventually answered in kind by the female, often from a distance. After 10 to 15 minutes of antiphonal (answering) singing, during which the two approach each other, the pair switches to a second duet, during which they meet. In the early spring this may be followed by precopulatory calls and posturing, then mating. Other calls of the screech owl include a note uttered by the female to stimulate the young to reveal their location after they have left the nest; a food-soliciting call by the young; and barking calls accompanied by bill-snapping, which indicate that the young are being ejected from the territory. Calls are also used during the adjustment of territorial boundaries. In many smaller species that do not normally sing duets, the male may sing all night from a single perch.

      The nocturnal routine of most owls involves peaks of activity at dusk and dawn. The owl leaves its secluded roost about dusk and moves to a perch overlooking the hunting area. There is a brief period of song, followed by about half an hour of foraging, then a longer period of song. Most of the darker hours of the night are spent inactively, with a period of alternating singing and hunting just before dawn.

      Posturing by singing owls indicates that they communicate by sight as well as by sound. The male horned owl (Bubo virginiatus) bows deeply with each song and raises the tail over the back. The wood owls (wood owl) (Strix species) engage in bowing, bobbing, and dancing, especially when courting (courtship). A defense display given by most large owls when threatened or when defending the nest involves increasing apparent body size by spreading the wings halfway and rotating them forward. The body feathers are raised, and the fearsome appearance is enhanced by snapping the bill and rocking the body from side to side. When seeking to avoid attention at its daytime roost (especially when being attacked by small birds), the owl compresses the plumage, elevates the ear tufts, and half closes the eyes. Combined with its barklike colour and pattern of the plumage, the owl looks like a broken branch.

Reproduction and development

      Most owls nest in natural cavities in trees or cliffs or in woodpecker holes. The barn owls and the Eurasian little owls (little owl) (Athene species) frequently use cavities in buildings. Some of the larger owls utilize old hawk or crow nests. Grassland and tundra owls nest on the ground, sometimes on an elevated hummock, and the burrowing owl digs a nest chamber in a rodent burrow. The laughing owl (Sceloglaux albifacies) was a ground-nester endemic to New Zealand that was driven to extinction in the early 1900s by animals introduced to the islands by settlers.

      Frequently the nest cavity provides a daytime roost for one or both of the pair during the nonbreeding months. Most owls add no nesting material to the site, but the fur and feathers of accumulated prey remains and regurgitated pellets may provide some cushion for the eggs. When an open nest is used, leaves, grass, or other soft material may be added as a lining. The great gray owl (Strix nebulosa) occasionally constructs its own platform nest in a tree. In desert areas the smaller owls rely primarily on holes made by woodpeckers in large cacti. Intense competition has been observed among nesting birds, including owls, for occupancy of a limited number of nest sites. The invasion of saguaro desert habitats by the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) has had a serious effect on small owls and other cactus-dwelling birds. The aggressive and abundant starlings occupy cavities before other species have returned from wintering grounds and successfully defend the holes against native species.

      Egg laying is timed such that the young become independent of their parents at a time when prey populations are greatest. At northern latitudes, many owls nest in the spring a month or two earlier than hawks, with the result that an incubating owl is frequently covered by several inches of snow. Barn owls have been found nesting in every month of the year, even at the northern edge of their range, but the peak of nesting is in the spring. Owls lay more eggs than most diurnal raptors, with clutches of up to 12 in the snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca). In years of lemming abundance, snowy owls attain higher nesting densities, nest earlier, lay more eggs, and have higher fledging rates than when lemmings are scarce. The eggs of owls are more spherical than those of any other bird group, the long diameter averaging only about 1.2 times the short diameter. They are typically laid at two-day intervals, but hatching is not synchronized. The result is that the oldest and youngest nestlings of a large brood may be hatched two or three weeks apart. If the prey populations are inadequate for the adult owls to support the entire large brood, the younger nestlings starve, while the more aggressive older ones are able to maintain normal growth rates and are strong at fledging.

      While in the nest, young owls grow two successive coats of white natal down. In the smaller species, the down is replaced by the immature juvenal plumage of softer, lacier texture than that of the adult. At this age, about two-thirds of the way to fledging, the young owls may leave the nest and spend the day several metres from it. In the screech owl, the juvenal plumage has fine barring, unlike the streaking of the adult. The first flight feathers, which appear about the same time, are like those of the adult but are more pointed. In the fall, only a few weeks after its acquisition, this plumage is replaced in a complete molt that introduces a plumage identical to that of the adult. In the larger owls (several species of Bubo), the juvenal plumage resembles that of the adult. Exceptions are the spot-bellied eagle owl (B. nipalensis) and the barred eagle owl (B. sumatranus), which are mostly white, with a pattern of black markings different from that of the adult.

Locomotion

      Most owls use their feet only for perching and grasping prey. The burrowing owls, however, being terrestrial, can run rapidly over the ground and rarely perch in vegetation. The typical owl perch is a horizontal branch in a tree. The bay owl habitually perches vertically on the trunk of a tree, with the legs reaching sideways, one foot above the other. The body is held in a vertical position as though the owl were perched on a horizontal limb.

      The flight of owls is a steady flapping on a straight path, ending in a short upward glide to the perch. Hunting, usually done from a perch, rarely involves extensive flight, requiring only a short burst of speed to surprise the prey on the ground. Forest owls rarely fly above the canopy of the foliage, but the Southeast Asian hawk-owl (hawk owl) (genus Ninox) has been observed high in the air, flapping—or, on one occasion, soaring—in circles through swarms of bats, apparently without catching any. A few grassland and tundra owls hunt in sustained flight and have proportionately more wing area than their forest-dwelling relatives. Short-eared owls flap slowly, the large area of the wings causing the light body to bob up and down; they also glide for brief periods with the wings held in a high V over the back.

Form and function

      All owls share the same general body plan. The wings are long and rounded, the tail short. The legs and toes are of medium length and exceptionally strong for the size of the bird. Each toe is provided with a needle-sharp, curved talon. The outer toe points rearward when perching and is normally directed outward or backward in taking prey, providing the maximum possible toe spread.

      The head is broad to accommodate the exceptionally large eyes (eye, human). The eyes are elongated forward, and each is encased in a tube made up of joined bony elements. Virtually immobile, the eye is rigidly encased. Remarkable flexibility of the neck compensates for the fixed position of the eyes; an owl can turn its head more than 180° in either direction and can thus look directly backward. The vision is binocular, and depth perception is often enhanced by moving the head away from the central plane. Various owls have only rods in the retina, resulting in an absence of colour vision but a great increase in visual acuity and light sensitivity. Contrary to popular opinion, owls are not blind in strong light. Their pupils, which operate independently, can be greatly reduced, protecting the sensitive retina and providing better daytime vision than that found in people.

      The ear (ear, human)s are large and surrounded by a ruff of papery feathers that serves to concentrate the sound. The feathers covering the ear opening are lacy and permeable to sound. A movable flap (operculum) on the front margin of the opening may function as a baffle to focus sounds. Some owls can locate and capture prey in total darkness, relying on their ability to localize the rustle of a mouse in leaves and to fly to that spot. In many owls the relative position of the ear opening is asymmetrical, being above a so-called blind cavity on one side of the head and below it on the other. The asymmetry is thought to be related to the sensitivity of each ear to sounds of various frequencies, providing the owl with the ability to localize sound sources in two planes simultaneously.

      The plumage of owls is soft, dense, and loose. A thick layer of down provides northern owls with insulation against cold. The upper surfaces of the flight feathers of most species are provided with a nap that makes the flight perfectly noiseless, allowing the owl to hear prey without interference caused by the sound of flight. Many owls have erectile tufts of feathers (“ears” or “horns”) above the eyes. The tufts serve to break the round outline of the head, adding to the concealment gained from colour and pattern.

 Owls vary in colour from white through many shades of tan, gray, brown, or rufous (reddish) to deep brown. A few are solidly coloured, but most are cryptically patterned with streaks, bars, or spots, often resulting in the bird's being almost invisible against tree bark. This concealing pattern is well exemplified in the small screech owls. The soft brown, rufous, buff, or gray ground colour of each breast feather is adorned by a blackish bar, a shaft streak, or a combination of both, sometimes outlined in white or rufous. In some widespread species, such as the Eurasian scops owl (O. scops) and the screech owl, geographic variation is so great that some divergent races are more different from one another than some species are from one another. In the far north there is only a faint pattern on a whitish background; in humid temperate forests, a bold pattern on a sooty background; in desert areas, a medium-to-fine pattern on pale gray; in arid tropics, a fine pattern on rufous; and in humid tropics, a coarse pattern on fulvous. Size variation is also present, with northern birds weighing about twice as much as their southern counterparts. The horned owl exhibits similar variation. Screech, scops, and whiskered owls may be either gray or rufous; the base colour apparently is determined by a single gene. Such dimorphism in colour is found in only certain populations of each species: the southern in the whiskered owl and the eastern in the North American screech owl and the Eurasian scops owl. In each case, interbreeding between the uniformly coloured monomorphic and sexually distinct dimorphic populations is limited. The red phase of the screech owl may have survival value in the predominantly deciduous forest of eastern North America, blending with the foliage of summer and autumn, in which reds and browns are strongly represented.

Paleontology and classification

Fossil history

      The fossil history of owls dates to the beginning of the Paleocene Epoch 65 million years ago, after which occurred a major diversification by the Eocene Epoch (54.8 to 33.7 million years ago). Some early owls reached far greater size than their modern descendants. A giant barn owl, about twice the size of the modern Tyto alba, inhabited Puerto Rico during the Pleistocene Epoch (1.8 million to 10,000 years ago). Another large owl, Ornimegalonyx oteroi from the Pleistocene of Cuba, apparently was flightless. Both owls must have exceeded the modern eagle owls in size.

Distinguishing taxonomic features

      The owls form a homogeneous group readily distinguished from all other orders by their general body plan, soft plumage, and skeletal peculiarities. To determine relationships within the Strigiformes, taxonomists utilize features of the skull and the sternum, relative specializations of the eye and ear, and the development of the facial disk. Within some genera the taxonomy is very complex, relying on general proportions, behaviour, voice, and even parasites (feather lice).

Critical appraisal

      Most current taxonomic problems are concerned with the placement of certain genera within the family and with the specific status of some populations of complex genera, such as Otus. Isolated populations with different voices are increasingly being recognized as separate species.

       nightjars (order Caprimulgiformes (caprimulgiform)) are considered the owls' closest relatives, though owls were once thought to be nocturnal raptors related to hawks and eagles (order Falconiformes (falconiform)). Fossil owls represent a variety of distinct families, but taxonomists have divided the order into only two families.

Annotated classification

Order Strigiformes

 180 species in 2 families of nocturnal predatory birds; hooked beak, broad skull, facial disk with forward-directed eyes; reversible outer toe; talons for securing prey.

      Family Tytonidae ( barn owls, grass owls, and bay owls)

 21 species in 2 genera found from tropical to temperate regions; body length 30–54 cm (12–21 inches); heart-shaped facial disk completely encircling face, bill comparatively long and slender; legs rather long; middle claw with comb.

      Family Strigidae ( burrowing owl, eagle owl, elf owl, fish owl, hawk owl, horned owls, little owl, long-eared owl, pygmy owl, screech owl, short-eared owl, snowy owl, spectacled owl, wood owl, and others)

 159 species in 20 genera found nearly worldwide; length 13–70 cm (5–28 inches).

Joe T. Marshall Frank Gill

Additional Reading

Claus Konig, Friedhelm Weick, and Jan-Hendrik Becking, Owls: A Guide to the Owls of the World (1999), covers the natural history of each species as well as general topics of conservation, evolution, and methods of studying owls. Floyd Scholz, Owls (2001), is notable for its numerous detailed photographs. Paul A. Johnsgard, North American Owls: Biology and Natural History, 2nd ed. (2002), is an in-depth examination of the 19 strigiforms found on the continent. Jemima Parry-Jones, Understanding Owls: Biology, Management, Breeding, Training (1998, reissued 2001), addresses the training, care, and breeding of captive owls. Michael Godfrey, Kenn Kaufman, and National Audubon Society, Owls Up Close (1991), is a video documentary that examines owl traits and behaviour. Ed.

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