occupational disease

1. Also called industrial disease. a disease caused by the conditions or hazards of a particular occupation.

2. a trait or tendency that develops among members of a particular profession: Cynicism was thought to be an occupational disease of reporters.

[1900-05]

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Illness associated with a particular occupation.

The Industrial Revolution's long working hours, dim light, lack of fresh air, and dangerous machinery fostered illness and injury in general, but certain occupations (e.g., mining) carry particular risks (e.g., black lung, a type of pneumoconiosis). Twentieth-century innovations (including use of new chemicals and radioactive materials) caused an increase in certain cancers (e.g., leukemia and bone cancer in workers exposed to radiation) and injuries. So-called "sick buildings" (in which pathogens grow in air circulation systems) contribute to health problems among office workers. Occupational medicine also covers work-related emotional stresses. See also asbestosis; industrial medicine.

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Introduction

      any illness associated with a particular occupation or industry. Such diseases result from a variety of biological, chemical, physical, and psychological factors that are present in the work environment or are otherwise encountered in the course of employment. Occupational medicine is concerned with the effect of all kinds of work on health and the effect of health on a worker's ability and efficiency.

      Occupational diseases are essentially preventable and can be ascribed to faulty working conditions. The control of occupational health hazards decreases the incidence of work-related diseases and accidents and improves the health and morale of the work force, leading to decreased absenteeism and increased worker efficiency. In most cases the moral and economic benefits far outweigh the costs of eliminating occupational hazards.

      This article discusses general occupational health hazards and the disorders they cause, as well as the role of occupational health services. More detailed information about specific disorders can be found in the articles dealing with human diseases and the structures of the human body, such as cancer; infection (infectious disease); and respiratory disease (respiration).

Historical overview

The preindustrial era

      The first recorded observation of an occupational disease may be a case of severe lead colic suffered by a worker who extracted metals. It is described in the third book of Epidemics, attributed to Hippocrates, the Greek physician of the 4th century BC. Other early writers also recognized the association between certain disorders and occupations. The Roman scholar Pliny (Pliny the Elder), in the 1st century AD, described mercury poisoning as a disease of slaves because mines contaminated by mercury vapour were considered too unhealthy for Roman citizens and thus were worked only by slaves. In general, however, physicians of antiquity were not concerned with the health of workers.

      During the Middle Ages the rise of metalliferous mining in central Europe inspired the German mineralogist Georgius Agricola (Agricola, Georgius) to make a detailed study of gold-and silver-mining operations. In his De Re Metallica, published posthumously in 1556, Agricola described the primitive methods of ventilation and personal protection in use, common mining accidents and disasters, and such miners' occupational diseases as the “difficulty in breathing and destruction of the lungs” caused by the harmful effects of dust inhalation.

      A more comprehensive account of occupational disorders was written by Bernardino Ramazzini (Ramazzini, Bernardino), a professor of medicine first at the University of Modena and later at the University of Padua. His De Morbis Artificum Diatriba (1700; Diseases of Workers) contains descriptions of the diseases associated with 54 different occupations, from the mercury poisoning of Venetian mirror makers to the diseases afflicting learned men. Ramazzini believed that a physician must determine the patient's occupation in order to discover the cause of the patient's disorder. He is generally regarded as the father of occupational medicine.

The industrial era

      The Industrial Revolution of the 18th century had a profound impact on occupational diseases. Rapid technological progress and industrial growth had led to crowded, unsanitary working and living conditions, with a corresponding rise in the number of accidents and deaths caused by the new machinery and exposure to toxic materials. In 1775 Percivall Pott, a London surgeon, linked the frequent occurrence of scrotal cancer among chimney sweeps to the soot ingrained into their skin by prolonged exposure to flue dusts. Charles Turner Thackrah, a Leeds physician, further advanced the study of occupational medicine (industrial medicine) in Britain with his The Effects of the Principal Arts, Trades and Professions . . . on Health and Longevity . . . (1831), which described lung diseases caused by dust that commonly afflicted miners and metal grinders. In 1895 Britain introduced a statutory notification system that required medical personnel to report all occurrences of certain diseases to the chief inspector of factories. Other industrial nations followed Britain's lead, and legal provisions for the health of the worker continued to be instituted throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

The 20th century

      Although such classic occupational diseases as lead poisoning and anthrax have declined in incidence in industrialized countries, none have been eradicated. Furthermore, new diseases continue to develop as a result of advances in technology. X rays (X-ray) were discovered in 1895, and 20 years later nearly 100 radiologists were estimated to have died as a result of occupational exposures. asbestos-related disease was first reported in the first half of the 20th century, and in 1974 hemangiosarcoma, a rare malignant tumour of the liver, was discovered among workers involved in the polymerization of vinyl chloride monomer. Other occupational diseases related to the introduction of industrial processes and materials may well be recognized in the future.

      Paralleling the development of new technology and occupational hazards has been the development of occupational health services. No longer concerned primarily with the prevention of industrial accidents and diseases among manual workers, industrial medicine now aims to protect and improve the health of all classes and kinds of workers. In 1950 a joint committee of the International Labour Organisation (International Labour Organization) and the World Health Organization (ILO/WHO) defined the concerns of occupational health as:

the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations; the prevention among workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adapted to his physiological equipment and, to summarise, the adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job.

      In most countries in the West the responsibility for health and safety at work is placed on the employer, although the government may establish safety standards. Occupational health services are provided as benefits by employers and generally are separate from other community health services. In the former Soviet Union occupational health and hygiene were given high priority and were fully integrated in the general medical care system. In the developing and Third World countries, many of which are undergoing rapid industrialization, the importance of occupational health is increasingly realized. The problems of exposure to occupational hazards, however, are frequently compounded by preexisting malnutrition and a high incidence of infectious disease. Occupational health services in these countries are often most practical and cost-effective, therefore, when combined with primary health care delivery.

Aims and functions of occupational health services

      The primary concerns of occupational health services remain those specified by the ILO/WHO in 1950, although work-related diseases are now considered as well as purely occupational diseases. The actual services offered are essentially preventive in nature and are summarized below.

Job placement

      People with certain preexisting medical conditions may be at a disadvantage in some jobs. A preemployment health questionnaire or medical examination can be of great value in such cases by determining job unsuitability before training time and expense have been incurred. Job suitability may also need to be regularly monitored in order to assure employee health and ability. Airline pilots, for example, undergo regular medical checkups because a pilot with failing vision or one who suffers from an undetected heart condition that can lead to a heart attack could endanger many lives. The health service can also give valuable advice with regard to alternative employment when a worker is found to be unfit for a particular job.

Safety training

      An occupational health service has a responsibility to keep all employees informed about hazards in the workplace. The measures taken to protect employee health should be thoroughly explained so that workers understand the necessity of complying with such irksome or unpleasant restrictions as the wearing of protective clothing and face masks. First aid facilities should be organized and employees instructed about first aid procedures in case of accidental injuries or other emergencies.

Supervision of high-risk groups

      Exposure levels considered safe for a young male worker may be hazardous for a pregnant woman (the fetus, especially during the first three months of development, is particularly sensitive to environmental toxic agents). Pregnant women, as well as such other vulnerable groups as the very young, the elderly, and the disabled, therefore require appropriate medical surveillance and advice about specific precautionary measures they can take.

Control of recognized hazards

      A complex system of environmental and biological monitoring has been developed for the control of known hazards at work. Occupational health practice is concerned with monitoring the concentration of toxic substances in the environment, determining safe exposure levels, suggesting procedures to limit worker exposure, and monitoring workers for signs of overexposure. Occupational health specialists can also contribute to the prevention of health risks by assisting in the planning and design of new equipment and factories.

Identification of unrecognized hazards

      Occupational health services can play a major role in the detection of new health hazards of all types. Clinical observation and study may reveal a causal relationship between patterns of sickness or mortality in groups of workers and their occupational exposure. Examples of hazards identified in this manner include lung and nasal cancer among nickel workers, lung cancer in asbestos workers, and coronary heart disease among workers exposed to carbon disulfide (used in the manufacture of rayon).

Treatment

      Quick, on-site treatment of work injuries and poisonings can prevent complications and aid recovery. Such treatment can also be economically beneficial by saving traveling and waiting time. Furthermore, physicians and nurses who are unfamiliar with their patients' working conditions may keep workers with minor injuries away from work longer than necessary. An occupational treatment service offers opportunities for specialized counseling and health education.

General health education and surveillance

      Occupational health services may have to provide general medical care for workers and their families in developing countries with inadequate community health services. Even when general health care is provided elsewhere, an occupational health service can offer an effective and often economically advantageous program of health education and counseling. By advising employees on such topics as smoking, alcohol or drug abuse, exercise, and diet, the occupational health service can improve worker health and efficiency and reduce illness and absenteeism. The health service is also in a position to organize employee health surveillance programs for the early diagnosis of disease.

Disorders due to chemical agents

      Hazardous chemicals can act directly on the skin, resulting in local irritation or an allergic reaction, or they may be absorbed through the skin, ingested, or inhaled. In the workplace ingestion of toxic chemicals (chemical industry) is usually accidental and most commonly results from handling contaminated food, drink, or cigarettes. Substances that occur as gases, vapours, aerosols, and dusts are the most difficult to control, and most hazardous chemicals are therefore absorbed through the respiratory tract. If inhaled, airborne contaminants act as irritants to the respiratory tract or as systemic poisons. Toxicity in such cases depends on the contaminant's concentration, particle size, and physicochemical properties, particularly its solubility in body fluids. An individual's reaction to any hazard depends primarily on the length, pattern, and concentration of exposure but is also affected by such factors as age, sex, ethnic group, genetic background, nutritional status, coexistent disease, concomitant exposure to other toxic agents, life-style, and history of previous exposure to the agent in question. The wide range of both naturally occurring and synthetic chemical compounds that can give rise to adverse health effects can be roughly organized into four major categories: gases, metals, organic compounds, and dusts.

Gases

      Gases may act as local irritants to inflame mucous surfaces. Common examples include sulfur dioxide, chlorine, and fluorine, which have pungent odours and can severely irritate the eyes and the respiratory tract. Some gases, such as nitrogen oxides and phosgene, are much more insidious. Victims may be unaware of the danger of exposure because the immediate effects of these gases may be mild and overlooked. Several hours after exposure, however, breathlessness and fatal cardiorespiratory failure due to pulmonary edema (collection of fluid in the lungs) may develop.

      Gases that interfere with oxygen supply to the tissues are known as asphyxiants (asphyxia) and are of two principal types. Simple asphyxiants are physiologically inert gases that act by diluting atmospheric oxygen. If the concentration of such gases is high enough, hypoxia (deficiency of oxygen reaching the tissues of the body) results. Victims of mild hypoxia may appear to be intoxicated and may even resist rescue attempts. Common examples of simple asphyxiants are methane and carbon dioxide.

      In contrast to simple asphyxiants, chemical asphyxiants, such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide, are highly reactive. They cause a chemical action that either prevents the blood from transporting oxygen to the tissues or interferes with oxygenation in the tissues. For example, carbon monoxide, a frequently encountered gas produced by incomplete combustion, combines with hemoglobin in the blood and reduces its oxygen-carrying capacity. In low concentration carbon monoxide poisoning can cause symptoms of fatigue, headache, nausea, and vomiting, but heavy exposure leads to coma and death. It is especially dangerous because it is both colourless and odourless. hydrogen sulfide, however, can be recognized by its characteristic smell, suggestive of rotten eggs. It is produced when sulfur compounds decompose and acts by inhibiting the respiratory enzyme cytochrome oxidase, thus giving rise to severe tissue hypoxia. In addition to its asphyxiant properties, hydrogen sulfide also acts as an irritant to the eyes and mucous membranes.

      Preventing gas poisoning involves preventing exposure. Workers should never enter enclosed spaces that have suspect atmospheres alone; workplaces should provide adequate ventilation, and air should be regularly tested for contamination. If exposure does occur, treatment involves the removal of the victim from the contaminated atmosphere, artificial respiration, and administration of oxygen or recommended antidotes. Victims exposed to gases with insidious delayed effects should be kept under medical observation for an appropriate period.

Metals (metal)

      Metals and their compounds are among the poisons most commonly encountered in the home and workplace. Even metals essential for life can be toxic if they are present in excessive amounts. iron, for example, is an essential element and is sometimes given therapeutically; if taken in overdose, however, it can be lethal.

       mercury poisoning, one of the classic occupational diseases, is a representative example of metal poisoning. Exposure to mercury can occur in many situations, including the manufacture of thermometers, explosives, fungicides, drugs, paints, batteries, and various electrical products. The disorders it can cause vary depending on the type of mercury compound and the method of exposure.

      Ingestion of mercury salts such as mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) leads to nausea, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea. Kidney damage resulting in death may follow in extreme cases. Inhalation or absorption through the skin of mercury vapour causes salivation, loosening of the teeth, and tremor; it also affects the higher centres of the brain, resulting in irritability, loss of memory, depression, anxiety, and other personality changes. This mental deterioration, known as erethism, led to the well-known saying “mad as a hatter,” because, in the past, hatters commonly became ill when they used mercury salts to make felt out of rabbit fur. Poisoning with organic mercury compounds (used in fungicides and pesticides) results in permanent neurological damage and can be fatal.

      Other hazardous metals commonly encountered in industry include arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, nickel, and thallium. Some have been shown to be carcinogenic, including certain compounds of nickel (linked to lung and nasal cancer), chromium (lung cancer), and arsenic (lung and skin cancer).

Organic compounds

      The organic compounds that pose the greatest occupational hazards are various aromatic, aliphatic, and halogenated hydrocarbons and the organophosphates, carbamates, organochlorine compounds, and bipyridylium compounds used as pesticides.

      Pesticides (pesticide) are used the world over; and, even though precautionary measures (such as using protective clothing and respirators, monitoring contamination of equipment and clothing, keeping workers out of recently sprayed areas, and requiring workers to wash thoroughly after exposure) can be instituted, poisoning not infrequently occurs in agricultural communities. The organophosphates and the generally less toxic carbamates exert their effects by inhibiting cholinesterase, an enzyme that prevents stimulation from becoming too intense or prolonged by destroying the acetylcholine involved in the transmission of impulses in the autonomic nervous system. Cholinesterase inhibitors allow the accumulation of acetylcholine, causing symptoms related to parasympathetic overactivity, such as chest tightness, wheezing, blurring of vision, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and in severe cases respiratory paralysis. Atropine and certain oximes counteract their effects.

      Paraquat and diquat, the bipyridylium compounds, are deadly if ingested. Skin contact or inhalation of a concentrate of paraquat can cause fatal lung damage. Because no specific antidote is known, treatment consists of minimizing the body's absorption of the poison.

      The organochlorine compounds, such as DDT, are being progressively phased out of use. Because they are fat-soluble and very stable, they accumulate and remain in the fatty tissues of the body for prolonged periods. Symptoms of poisoning include nausea, irritability, weakness, muscle tremors, and convulsions. There is no specific antidote.

      Other groups of pesticides that are used less frequently or are less hazardous include the organomercury compounds (see above Metals); the dinitro and arsenic compounds; and nicotine.

      Hydrocarbons (hydrocarbon) are used industrially in the derivation of other compounds and in solvents, degreasing agents, refrigerants, fire extinguishers, dry cleaning agents, paint removers, and other products. Many are volatile and can be absorbed by inhalation; some are fat-soluble and can be readily absorbed following spills on the skin.

      Gasoline, fuel oils, and other petroleum products are common examples of aliphatic hydrocarbons. If they are ingested or inhaled, dizziness, weakness, nausea, or irritation of the lungs may follow. In very severe cases victims may become unconscious or experience convulsions. Direct contact causes skin irritation and dryness. Prolonged exposure to certain petroleum oils may result in skin cancer.

      The aromatic (aromatic compound) hydrocarbon benzene provides the basis for the synthesis of many other organic compounds. It is rapidly absorbed following inhalation or skin contact. Symptoms from mild exposure include dizziness, headache, euphoria, confusion, and nausea. Long-term exposure may be followed by bone marrow depression, anemia, spontaneous bleeding, and leukemia. Several aromatic hydrocarbons are known to be carcinogens. Particularly hazardous are naphthylamine, benzidine, and 4-amino diphenyl, which cause bladder cancer. Previously used in the synthetic dye, synthetic rubber, cable-making, and chemical industries, they have been banned in a number of countries.

      When aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons have hydrogen atoms in their structure replaced by halogens (often chlorine), they are known as halogenated hydrocarbons. In general, increasing the chlorination of aliphatic hydrocarbons increases their toxicity, while the reverse is true of the aromatic series. Many chlorinated hydrocarbons, including chloroform and trichloroethylene, act as depressants on the central nervous system, producing anesthetic or narcotic effects that may be abused. Occupational exposure to many solvents may act synergistically with alcohol, resulting in more damage than either agent could produce on its own. Some halogenated hydrocarbons cause extensive disorders in addition to their common narcotic effect. Inhaling or ingesting the solvent carbon tetrachloride, for example, leads to liver damage; and exposure to vinyl chloride causes Raynaud's phenomenon (spasms in the small arteries that cause the extremities to become pale and cold, as well as painful), necrosis of the small bones of the hand, liver damage, and a rare, highly malignant tumour of the liver.

      Workers exposed to hydrocarbons should wear protective clothing or masks when appropriate, moderate alcohol consumption, and verify that work areas are well ventilated and that recommended exposure levels are not exceeded.

Dusts

      The inhalation of a variety of dusts is responsible for a number of lung and respiratory disorders, whose symptoms and severity depend on the composition and size of the dust particle, the amount of dust inhaled, and the length of exposure. The lung diseases known as the pneumoconioses (pneumoconiosis) result when certain inhaled mineral dusts are deposited in the lungs, where they cause a chronic fibrotic reaction that leads to decreasing capacity for exercise and increasing breathlessness, cough, and respiratory difficulty. No specific treatment is known, but as with all respiratory disorders patients are urged to quit smoking, which aggravates the condition. Suggested measures for limiting exposure include using water and exhaust ventilation to lower dust levels and requiring workers to wear respirators or protective clothing, but such procedures are not always feasible. Coal worker's pneumoconiosis, silicosis, and asbestosis are the most common pneumoconioses.

      As its name suggests, coal worker's pneumoconiosis (also known as black lung) occurs most frequently among coal miners and workers involved in the transporting or processing of coal. It is generally benign in its early stages, but after a variable number of years of exposure to coal dust, progressive massive fibrosis may develop, ending in cardiorespiratory failure. Miners and quarry workers are the people most likely to suffer from silicosis. Because silica is found in many rocks and is used in a variety of industries, workers involved in stonecutting, grinding, drilling, foundry work, sandblasting, pottery making, and the manufacture of abrasives are also at risk. Silicosis is an aggressive form of pulmonary fibrosis that speeds the progress of tuberculosis. Routine chest X rays can aid early diagnosis by revealing abnormal shadowing. asbestosis is more difficult to detect in the early stages because chest X rays usually reveal little until the disease is advanced. From onset asbestosis progresses more rapidly than the other pneumoconioses and can result from relatively low exposure. Asbestos is the general term for a number of fibrous silicates that are used primarily in various fireproofing, insulation, and cement products. In addition to pulmonary fibrosis, inhaling asbestos fibres has also been shown to cause lung and other cancers.

      Prolonged exposure to certain plant and animal dusts can cause asthma, even in people without a predisposition for allergies. Specific hazards include dusts from flour, grains, and wood and wood products. Cotton workers and others handling hemp or flax may develop a condition known as byssinosis, similar to asthma. The group of diseases known as farmer's lung, malt worker's lung, bird fancier's lung, and so forth are caused by an allergic inflammatory reaction to the fungal spores present in moldy hay or barley, bird droppings, feathers, and a variety of other organic materials. Symptoms initially resemble those of influenza or pneumonia, but repeated episodes eventually lead to pulmonary fibrosis with chronic respiratory impairment. The only treatment for these disorders is avoiding exposure to the dusts.

Disorders due to physical agents

Temperature (temperature stress)

      When working in a hot environment, humans maintain normal body temperature by perspiring and by increasing the blood flow to the surface of the body. The large amounts of water and salt lost in perspiration then need to be replaced. In the past, miners who perspired profusely and drank water to relieve their thirst experienced intense muscular pain—a condition known as miner's cramps—as a result of restoring their water but not their salt balance. When salt in the requisite amount was added to their drinks, workers no longer developed miner's cramps. Heat exhaustion is characterized by thirst, fatigue, giddiness, and often muscle cramps; fainting can also occur. heatstroke, a more serious and sometimes lethal condition, results when prolonged exposure to heat and high humidity prevents efficient perspiration (by preventing evaporation of sweat), causing the body temperature to rise above 106° F (41° C) and the skin to feel hot and dry. If victims are not quickly cooled down, coma, convulsions, and death can follow. To prevent heat exhaustion or heatstroke, workers unaccustomed to high temperatures should allow adequate time (ranging from days to weeks) for their bodies to become acclimatized before performing strenuous physical tasks.

      Work in cold environments may also have serious adverse effects. Tissue damage that does not involve freezing can cause inflammatory swelling known as chilblains (chilblain). frostbite, or the freezing of tissue, can lead to gangrene and the loss of fingers or toes. If exposure is prolonged and conditions (such as wet or tight clothing) encourage heat loss, hypothermia, a critical fall in body temperature, may result. When body temperature falls below 95° F (35° C), physiological processes are slowed, consciousness is impaired, and coma, cardiorespiratory failure, and death may ensue. Workers exposed to extreme cold require carefully designed protective clothing to minimize heat loss, even though a degree of acclimatization occurs with time.

Atmospheric pressure

       decompression sickness (caisson disease) can result from exposure to high or low atmospheric pressure. Under increased atmospheric pressure (such as that experienced by deep-sea divers or tunnel workers), fat-soluble nitrogen gas dissolves in the body fluids and tissues. During decompression the gas comes out of solution and, if decompression is rapid, forms bubbles in the tissues. These bubbles cause pains in the limbs (known as the bends), breathlessness, angina, headache, dizziness, collapse, coma, and in some cases death. Similarly, the gases in solution in the body tissues under normal atmospheric pressure form bubbles when pressure rapidly decreases, as when aviators in unpressurized aircraft ascend to high altitudes too quickly. Emergency treatment of decompression sickness consists of rapid recompression in a compression chamber with gradual subsequent decompression. The condition can be prevented by allowing sufficient decompression time for the excess nitrogen gas to be expelled naturally.

noise

      Exposure to excessive noise can be unpleasant and can impair working efficiency. Temporary or permanent hearing loss may also occur, depending on the loudness or intensity of the noise, its pitch or frequency, the length and pattern of exposure, and the vulnerability of the individual. Prolonged exposure to sound energy of intensity above 80 to 90 decibels is likely to result in noise-induced hearing loss, developing first for high frequencies and progressing downward. The condition can be prevented by enclosing noisy machinery and by providing effective ear protection. Routine audiometry gives an indication of the effectiveness of preventive measures.

Vibration

      Whole-body vibration is experienced in surface and air transport, with motion sickness its most familiar effect. A more serious disorder, known as Raynaud's syndrome (Raynaud syndrome) or vibration white finger (VWF), can result from the extensive use of vibratory hand tools, especially in cold weather. The condition is seen most frequently among workers who handle chain saws, grinders, pneumatic drills, hammers, and chisels. Forestry workers in cold climates are particularly at risk. Initial signs of VWF are tingling and numbness of the fingers, followed by intermittent blanching; redness and pain occur in the recovery stage. In a minority of cases the tissues, bones, and joints affected by the vibration may develop abnormalities; even gangrene may develop. VWF can be prevented by using properly designed tools, avoiding prolonged use of vibrating tools, and keeping the hands warm in cold weather.

Other mechanical stresses

      Muscle cramps (cramp) often afflict workers engaged in heavy manual labour as well as typists, pianists, and others who frequently use rapid, repetitive movements of the hand or forearm. Tenosynovitis, a condition in which the sheath enclosing a tendon to the wrist or to one of the fingers becomes inflamed, causing pain and temporary disability, can also result from prolonged repetitive movement. When the movement involves the rotation of the forearm, the extensor tendon attached to the point of the elbow becomes inflamed, a condition commonly known as tennis elbow.

Ionizing radiation (ionizing radiation injury)

      Ionizing radiation damages or destroys body tissues by breaking down the molecules in the tissues into positively or negatively charged particles called ions. Radiation that is capable of causing ionization may be electromagnetic (X rays and gamma rays) or particulate (radiation of electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles, and other subatomic particles) and has many uses in industry, medicine, and scientific research.

      Ionizing radiation injury is in general dose-dependent. Whole-body exposure to doses in excess of 1,000 rads results in acute radiation syndrome and is usually fatal. Doses in excess of 3,000 rads produce cerebral edema (brain swelling) within a matter of minutes, and death within days. Lesser doses cause acute gastrointestinal symptoms, such as severe vomiting and diarrhea, followed by a week or so of apparent well-being before the development of the third toxic phase, which is characterized by fever, further gastrointestinal symptoms, ulceration of the mouth and throat, hemorrhages, and hair loss. There is an immediate drop in the white-cell elements of the blood, affecting the lymphocytes first and then the granulocytes and platelets, with a slower decline in the red cells. If death does not occur, these symptoms may last for many months before slow recovery begins.

      Delayed effects of exposure to radiation include the development of leukemia and other cancers. Examples include the skin cancers that killed many of the pioneering scientists who worked with X rays and radioactive elements; the lung cancer common among miners of radioactive ores; and the bone cancer and aplastic anemia that women who painted clock dials with a luminous mixture containing radium and mesothorium developed as a result of ingesting small amounts of paint when they licked their paintbrushes to form a point.

Nonionizing radiation

      Nonionizing forms of radiation include electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency, infrared, visible light, and ultraviolet ranges. Exposure to radiation in the radio frequency range occurs in the telecommunications industry and in the use of microwaves. Microwaves produce localized heating of tissues that may be intense and dangerous. Various other disorders, mainly of a subjective nature, have been reported in workers exposed to this frequency range. Infrared radiation can be felt as heat and is commonly used in industry in drying or baking processes. Prolonged exposure to the radiation can result in severe damage to the skin and especially to the lens of the eye, where cataracts may be produced. Working under poor lighting conditions can adversely affect worker efficiency and well-being and may even cause temporary physical disorders, such as headache or dizziness. Proper lighting should provide adequate, uniform illumination and appropriate contrast and colour, without any flickering or glare. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun or such industrial operations as welding or glassblowing causes erythema of the skin (a condition familiarly known as sunburn), skin cancer, and inflammation of the conjunctiva and cornea. Pigmentation offers natural protection against sunburn, and clothing and glass can also be used as effective shields against ultraviolet radiation. Lasers emit intense infrared, visible, or ultraviolet radiation of a single frequency that is used in surgery, for scientific research, and for cutting, welding, and drilling in industry. Exposure to these beams can burn the skin and cause severe damage to the eye.

Disorders due to infectious agents

      A large number of infectious diseases are transmitted to humans by animals. Many such diseases have been largely eliminated, but some still pose hazards. anthrax, for example, can be acquired by workers handling the unsterilized hair, hide, and bone of infected animals; and slaughterhouse workers, farmers, veterinarians, and others in contact with infected animals, milk, and milk products still frequently contract brucellosis.

      Contact with contaminated water is another common method of acquiring infectious diseases. Many workers are infected by organisms that thrive in the puddles or stagnant water found in sewers, canals, paddies, slaughterhouses, irrigation projects, and mines.

      Laboratory workers, nurses, surgeons, and other health care workers may contract infectious diseases such as tuberculosis in the course of their work. To help prevent infection, these workers should wear appropriate protective clothing and exercise care when handling contaminated needles or other equipment. Contaminated material should be appropriately bagged, labeled, and disposed.

Disorders due to psychological factors

      Psychological factors are important determinants of worker health, well-being, and productivity. Studies have shown the benefits to workers who feel satisfied and stimulated by their jobs, who maintain good relationships with their employers or supervisors and with other employees, and who do not feel overworked. Such workers have lower rates of absenteeism and job turnover and higher rates of output than average.

      The two psychological hazards commonly encountered at work are boredom and mental stress. Workers who perform simple, repetitious tasks for prolonged periods are subject to boredom, as are people who work in bland, colourless environments. Boredom can cause frustration, unhappiness, inattentiveness, and other detriments to mental well-being. More practically, boredom decreases worker output and increases the chances of error and accident. Providing refreshment and relaxation breaks or other outside stimulus can help relieve boredom.

      Mental stress often results from overwork, although nonoccupational factors, such as personal relationships, life-style, and state of physical health, can play a major role. Job dissatisfaction, increased responsibility, disinterest, competition, feelings of inadequacy, and bad working relationships can also contribute to mental stress. Stress affects both mental and physical health, causing anger, irritation, fatigue, aches, nausea, ulcers, migraine, asthma, colitis, or even breakdown and coronary heart disease. Moderate exercise, meditation, relaxation, and therapy can help workers to cope with stress.

Additional Reading

Georg Agricola, Georgius Agricola De Re Metallica, translated by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover (1912, reprinted 1950; originally published in Latin, 1556), an illustrated 16th-century study of working conditions in the mines of central Europe; Bernardino Ramazzini, Diseases of Workers, translated and revised by Wilmer Cave Wright (1940, reprinted 1983; originally published in Latin, rev. ed., 1713), a classic; H.E. Sigerist, “Historical Background to Industrial and Occupational Diseases,” Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 12:597–609 (November 1936), a brief account of the recognition of occupational disease; Donald Hunter, The Diseases of Occupations, 6th ed. (1978), a historical overview of occupational medicine; R.S.F. Schilling (ed.), Occupational Health Practice, 2nd ed. (1981), a detailed account of industrial hygiene and disease prevention practices; and Luigi Parmeggiani (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 3rd rev. ed. (1983), a comprehensive reference source prepared under the auspices of the International Labour Organisation. Other comprehensive works include Marcus M. Key et al. (eds.), Occupational Diseases: A Guide to Their Recognition, rev. ed. (1977); Linda Rosenstock and Mark R. Cullen, Clinical Occupational Medicine (1986); and John C. Bartone, Occupational Diseases: International Survey with Medical Subject Directory and Bibliography (1983).Specific problems are studied in G. Kazantzis and L.J. Lilly, “Mutagenic and Carcinogenic Effects of Metals,” in vol. 1 of Lars Friberg, Gunnar F. Nordberg, and Velimir B. Vouk (eds.), Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1986); W. Keith C. Morgan and Anthony Seaton, Occupational Lung Diseases, 2nd ed. (1984); David F. Goldsmith, Deborah M. Winn, and Carl M. Shy (ed.), Silica, Silicosis, and Cancer: Controversy in Occupational Medicine (1986); Michael Alderson, Occupational Cancer (1986); Arthur F. DiSalvo (ed.), Occupational Mycoses (1983); Richard R. Weeden, Poison in the Pot: The Legacy of Lead (1984); A.J. Brammer and W. Taylor (eds.), Vibration Effects on the Hand and Arm in Industry (1982); and Diana Chapman Walsh and Richard H. Egdahl (eds.), Women, Work, and Health: Challenges to Corporate Policy (1980). Preventing Illness and Injury in the Workplace (1985), is a survey on the prevention and control of occupational disease in the United States prepared by the Office of Technology Assessment.George Kazantzis

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