Morocco

—Moroccan /meuh rok"euhn/, adj., n.

/meuh rok"oh/, n.

1. French, Maroc. Spanish, Marruecos. a kingdom in NW Africa: formed from a sultanate that was divided into two protectorates (French Morocco and Spanish Morocco) and an international zone. 30,391,423; 172,104 sq. mi. (445,749 sq. km). Cap.: Rabat. Cf. Tangier Zone.

2. former name of Marrakesh.

3. (l.c.) a fine, pebble-grained leather, originally made in Morocco from goatskin tanned with sumac.

4. (l.c.) any leather made in imitation of this. Also called morocco leather (for defs. 3, 4).

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Morocco

Introduction Morocco
Background: Morocco's long struggle for independence from France ended in 1956. The internationalized city of Tangier was turned over to the new country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Sahara during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in 1997. Geography Morocco -
Location: Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and Western Sahara
Geographic coordinates: 32 00 N, 5 00 W
Map references: Africa
Area: total: 446,550 sq km land: 446,300 sq km water: 250 sq km
Area - comparative: slightly larger than California
Land boundaries: total: 2,017.9 km border countries: Algeria 1,559 km, Western Sahara 443 km, Spain (Ceuta) 6.3 km, Spain (Melilla) 9.6 km
Coastline: 1,835 km
Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 NM territorial sea: 12 NM continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: 200 NM
Climate: Mediterranean, becoming more extreme in the interior
Terrain: northern coast and interior are mountainous with large areas of bordering plateaus, intermontane valleys, and rich coastal plains
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Sebkha Tah -55 m highest point: Jbel Toubkal 4,165 m
Natural resources: phosphates, iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, fish, salt
Land use: arable land: 20.12% permanent crops: 2.05% other: 77.83% (1998 est.)
Irrigated land: 12,910 sq km (1998 est.)
Natural hazards: northern mountains geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes; periodic droughts Environment - current issues: land degradation/desertification (soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation); water supplies contaminated by raw sewage; siltation of reservoirs; oil pollution of coastal waters Environment - international party to: Biodiversity, Climate
agreements: Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea
Geography - note: strategic location along Strait of Gibraltar People Morocco
Population: 31,167,783 (July 2002 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 33.8% (male 5,364,948; female 5,166,666) 15-64 years: 61.5% (male 9,518,503; female 9,640,292) 65 years and over: 4.7% (male 661,054; female 816,320) (2002 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.68% (2002 est.)
Birth rate: 23.69 births/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Death rate: 5.86 deaths/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Net migration rate: -1.09 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.81 male(s)/ female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2002 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 46.49 deaths/1,000 live births (2002 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 69.73 years female: 72.08 years (2002 est.) male: 67.49 years
Total fertility rate: 2.97 children born/woman (2002 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: 0.03% (1999 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/ NA
AIDS:
HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA
Nationality: noun: Moroccan(s) adjective: Moroccan
Ethnic groups: Arab-Berber 99.1%, other 0.7%, Jewish 0.2%
Religions: Muslim 98.7%, Christian 1.1%, Jewish 0.2%
Languages: Arabic (official), Berber dialects, French often the language of business, government, and diplomacy
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 43.7% male: 56.6% female: 31% (1995 est.) Government Morocco
Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Morocco conventional short form: Morocco local short form: Al Maghrib local long form: Al Mamlakah al Maghribiyah
Government type: constitutional monarchy
Capital: Rabat Administrative divisions: 37 provinces and 2 wilayas*; Agadir, Al Hoceima, Azilal, Beni Mellal, Ben Slimane, Boulemane, Casablanca*, Chaouen, El Jadida, El Kelaa des Sraghna, Er Rachidia, Essaouira, Fes, Figuig, Guelmim, Ifrane, Kenitra, Khemisset, Khenifra, Khouribga, Laayoune, Larache, Marrakech, Meknes, Nador, Ouarzazate, Oujda, Rabat-Sale*, Safi, Settat, Sidi Kacem, Tanger, Tan-Tan, Taounate, Taroudannt, Tata, Taza, Tetouan, Tiznit note: three additional provinces of Ad Dakhla (Oued Eddahab), Boujdour, and Es Smara as well as parts of Tan-Tan and Laayoune fall within Moroccan-claimed Western Sahara; decentralization/regionalization law passed by the legislature in March 1997 created many new provinces/ regions; specific details and scope of the reorganization not yet available
Independence: 2 March 1956 (from France)
National holiday: Throne Day (accession of King MOHAMED VI to the throne), 30 July (1999)
Constitution: 10 March 1972, revised 4 September 1992, amended (to create bicameral legislature) September 1996
Legal system: based on Islamic law and French and Spanish civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Chamber of Supreme Court
Suffrage: 21 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: King MOHAMED VI (since 23 July 1999) head of government: Prime Minister Abderrahmane YOUSSOUFI (since 14 March 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch following legislative elections
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of an upper house or Chamber of Counselors (270 seats; members elected indirectly by local councils, professional organizations, and labor syndicates for nine-year terms; one-third of the members are renewed every three years) and a lower house or Chamber of Representatives (325 seats; members elected by popular vote for five- year terms) elections: Chamber of Counselors - last held 15 September 2000 (next to be held NA 2002); Chamber of Representatives - last held 14 November 1997 (next to be held NA November 2002) election results: Chamber of Counselors - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NA; Chamber of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - USFP 57, UC 50, RNI 46, MP 40, MDS 32, IP 32, MNP 19, PND 10, MPCD 9, PPS 9, FFD 9, PSD 5, OADP 4, PA 2, PDI 1
Judicial branch: Supreme Court (judges are appointed on the recommendation of the Supreme Council of the Judiciary, presided over by the monarch) Political parties and leaders: Action Party or PA [Muhammad EL IDRISSI]; Avant Garde Social Democratic Party or PADS [Abderrahman BENAMROU]; Citizen's Forces [Abderrahman LAJOUJI]; Constitutional Union or CU [Mohamed ABIED (interim)]; Democratic Forces Front or FFD [Thami EL KHYARI]; Democratic Socialist Party or PSD [Eissa OUARDIGHI]; Democratic Party for Independence or PDI [Abd al Wahid AL MAASH]; Democratic Union or UD [Bouazza IKKEN]; Istiqlal Party or IP [Abbas El FASSI]; Moroccan Liberal Party [Mohamed ZIANE]; National Democratic Party or PND [Abdallah KADIRI]; National Popular Movement or MNP [Mahjoubi AHERDANE]; National Rally of Independents or RNI [Ahmed OSMAN]; Organization of Democratic and Popular Action or OADP [Mohamed Ben Said AIT IDDER]; Party of Justice and Development or PJD (note - formerly the Popular Constitutional and Democratic Movement or MPCD) [Dr. Abdelkarim KHATIB]; Party of the National Unionist Congress [Abdelmajid BOUZOUBAA]; Party of Progress and Socialism or PPS [Ismail ALAOUI]; Party of Reform and Development [Abderrahman EL KOUHEN]; Popular Movement or MP [Mohamed LAENSER]; Social Democratic Movement or MDS [Mahmoud AARSHANE]; Socialist Union of Popular Forces or USFP [Abderrahman EL-YOUSSOUFI] Political pressure groups and Democratic Confederation of Labor or
leaders: CDT [Noubir AMAOUI]; General Union of Moroccan Workers or UGTM [Abderrazzak AFILAL]; Moroccan Employers Association or CGEM [leader NA]; National Labor Union of Morocco or UNMT [Abdelslam MAATI]; Union of Moroccan Workers or UMT [Mahjoub BENSEDDIK] International organization ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF,
participation: AMU, CCC, EBRD, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Abdullah MAAROUFI consulate(s) general: New York FAX: [1] [phone] telephone: [1] [phone] through 7982 chancery: 1601 21st Street NW, Washington, DC 20009 Diplomatic representation from the chief of mission: Ambassador Ms.
US: Margaret TUTWILER (since 11 Jul. 2001) embassy: 2 Avenue de Mohamed El Fassi, Rabat mailing address: PSC 74, Box 3, APO AE 90718 telephone: [212] (37) 76 22 65 FAX: [212] (37) 76 56 61 consulate(s) general: Casablanca
Flag description: red with a green pentacle (five- pointed, linear star) known as Solomon's seal in the center of the flag; green is the traditional color of Islam Economy Morocco -
Economy - overview: Morocco faces the problems typical of developing countries - restraining government spending, reducing constraints on private activity and foreign trade, and achieving sustainable economic growth. Following structural adjustment programs supported by the IMF, World Bank, and the Paris Club, the dirham is now fully convertible for current account transactions, and reforms of the financial sector have been implemented. Droughts depressed activity in the key agricultural sector and contributed to a stagnant economy in 1999 and 2000. During that time, however, Morocco reported large foreign exchange inflows from the sale of a mobile telephone license and partial privatization of the state-owned telecommunications company. Favorable rainfall in 2001 led to a growth of 5%. Formidable long-term challenges include: servicing the external debt; preparing the economy for freer trade with the EU; and improving education and attracting foreign investment to boost living standards and job prospects for Morocco's youth.
GDP: purchasing power parity - $112 billion (2001 est.)
GDP - real growth rate: 5% (2001 est.)
GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,700 (2001 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 15% industry: 33% services: 52% (2000 est.) Population below poverty line: 19% (1999 est.) Household income or consumption by lowest 10%: 2.6%
percentage share: highest 10%: 30.9% (1998-99) Distribution of family income - Gini 39.5 (1998-99)
index: Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (2001 est.)
Labor force: 11 million (1999) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 50%, services 35%, industry 15% (1999 est.)
Unemployment rate: 23% (1999 est.)
Budget: revenues: $13.8 billion expenditures: $14.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $2.1 billion (2001 est.)
Industries: phosphate rock mining and processing, food processing, leather goods, textiles, construction, tourism Industrial production growth rate: 0.5% (1999 est.) Electricity - production: 14.243 billion kWh (2000) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 91.27% hydro: 8.73% other: 0% (2000) nuclear: 0% Electricity - consumption: 14.346 billion kWh (2000)
Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2000)
Electricity - imports: 1.1 billion kWh (2000)
Agriculture - products: barley, wheat, citrus, wine, vegetables, olives; livestock
Exports: $8.2 billion (f.o.b., 2001 est.)
Exports - commodities: phosphates and fertilizers, food and beverages, minerals
Exports - partners: France 26%, Spain 10%, UK 8%, Italy 6%, Germany 5%, India 5%, US 5% (2000)
Imports: $12.4 billion (f.o.b., 2001 est.)
Imports - commodities: semiprocessed goods, machinery and equipment, food and beverages, consumer goods, fuel
Imports - partners: France 25%, Spain 11%, Germany 6%, Italy 6%, UK 5%, US 5% (2000)
Debt - external: $19 billion (2001 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $565.6 million (1995)
Currency: Moroccan dirham (MAD)
Currency code: MAD
Exchange rates: Moroccan dirhams per US dollar - 11.584 (January 2002), 11.303 (2001), 10.626 (2000), 9.804 (1999), 9.604 (1998), 9.527 (1997)
Fiscal year: calendar year Communications Morocco Telephones - main lines in use: 1.391 million (1998) Telephones - mobile cellular: 116,645 (1998)
Telephone system: general assessment: modern system with all important capabilities; however density is low with only 4.6 main lines available for each 100 persons domestic: good system composed of open-wire lines, cables, and microwave radio relay links; Internet available but expensive; principal switching centers are Casablanca and Rabat; national network nearly 100% digital using fiber-optic links; improved rural service employs microwave radio relay international: 7 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Arabsat; microwave radio relay to Gibraltar, Spain, and Western Sahara; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Algeria; participant in Medarabtel; fiber-optic cable link from Agadir to Algeria and Tunisia (1998) Radio broadcast stations: AM 27, FM 25, shortwave 6 (1998)
Radios: 6.64 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 35 (plus 66 repeaters) (1995)
Televisions: 3.1 million (1997)
Internet country code: .ma Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 8 (2000)
Internet users: 220,000 (2001) Transportation Morocco
Railways: total: 1,907 km standard gauge: 1,907 km 1.435- m gauge (1,003 km electrified; 540 km double-tracked) (2001)
Highways: total: 57,847 km paved: 30,254 km (including 327 km of expressways) unpaved: 27,593 km (1998)
Waterways: none
Pipelines: crude oil 362 km; petroleum products 491 km (abandoned); natural gas 241 km
Ports and harbors: Agadir, El Jadida, Casablanca, El Jorf Lasfar, Kenitra, Mohammedia, Nador, Rabat, Safi, Tangier; also Spanish-controlled Ceuta and Melilla
Merchant marine: total: 41 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 227,364 GRT/277,306 DWT ships by type: cargo 10, chemical tanker 6, container 6, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 8, roll on/roll off 8, short-sea passenger 1 note: includes some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Germany 1, Hong Kong 1, Netherlands 2, Norway 2 (2002 est.)
Airports: 67 (2001) Airports - with paved runways: total: 26 over 3,047 m: 9 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2001) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 9 Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 41 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 10 under 914 m: 11 (2001) 914 to 1,523 m: 19
Heliports: 1 (2001) Military Morocco
Military branches: Royal Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), Gendarmerie, Auxiliary Forces Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age (2002 est.) Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 8,393,772 (2002 est.) Military manpower - fit for military males age 15-49: 5,289,283 (2002
service: est.) Military manpower - reaching military males: 348,380 (2002 est.)
age annually: Military expenditures - dollar $1.4 billion (FY99/00)
figure: Military expenditures - percent of 4% (FY99/00)
GDP: Transnational Issues Morocco Disputes - international: claims and administers Western Sahara, but sovereignty remains unresolved; UN-administered cease- fire has remained in effect since September 1991, but attempts to hold a referendum have failed and parties reject other proposals; Spain controls three small possessions off the coast of Morocco - the islands of Penon de Alhucemas, Penon de Velez de la Gomera, and Islas Chafarinas and two autonomous communities on the coast of Morrocco - Ceuta and Mellila; Morocco rejected Spain's unilateral designation of a median line from the Canary Islands in 2002 to explore undersea resources and to interdict illegal refugees from Africa
Illicit drugs: illicit producer of hashish; trafficking increasing for both domestic and international drug markets; shipments of hashish mostly directed to Western Europe; transit point for cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe

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officially Kingdom of Morocco

Country, North Africa.

Area: 177,117 sq mi (458,730 sq km). Population (2002 est.): 29,632,000. Capital: Rabat. Arabized Berbers are the country's largest ethnolinguistic group; there are French, Spanish, and Bedouin minorities. Languages: Arabic (official), Berber, French. Religion: Islam (official), mostly Sunnite. Currency: dirham. Morocco is a mountainous country with an average elevation of 2,600 ft (800 m) above sea level. A mountain chain known as the Rif runs along the northern coast; the Atlas Mountains rise in the country's centre and include Mount Toubkal (13,665 ft [4,165 m]), the country's highest point of elevation. The area is a zone of severe seismic activity, and earthquakes are frequent. Its fertile lowlands support agriculture; major crops include barley, wheat, and sugar beets. Morocco is one of the world's largest suppliers of phosphate. Its industrial centre is Casablanca, the largest city. It is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its chief of state and head of government is the king, assisted by the prime minister. The Berbers entered Morocco near the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Phoenicians established trading posts along the Mediterranean coast during the 12th century BC, and Carthage had settlements along the Atlantic coast in the 5th century BC. After the fall of Carthage, the region's leaders became loyal allies of Rome, and in 46 AD it was annexed by the Romans as part of the province of Mauretania. It was invaded by Muslims in the 7th century. The Almoravid dynasty conquered it and the Muslim areas of Spain in the mid-11th century; in the 12th century the Almohad dynasty overthrew the Almoravids. They in turn were conquered by the Marīnid dynasty in the 13th century. After the fall of the Marīnids in the mid-15th century, the Saʽdī dynasty ruled for a century, beginning с 1550. Attacks by pirates from the states of the Barbary Coast compelled Europeans to enter the area: the French fought Morocco over the boundary with Algeria, Britain obtained trading rights in 1856, and the Spanish seized part of Moroccan territory in 1859. Morocco was a French protectorate from 1912 until its independence in 1956. In the late 1970s it reasserted claim to the Spanish Sahara (see Western Sahara), and in 1976 Spanish troops withdrew from the region, leaving behind the Algerian-supported Saharan guerrillas of the Polisario movement. Relations with Mauritania and Algeria deteriorated, and fighting over the region continued. Attempts at mediation by the international community met with little success.

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▪ 2009

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2008 est.): 32,103,000, of which Western Sahara 497,000 (excluding 90,000 Saharawi refugees living near Tindouf, Alg., from 1975)

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister Abbas al-Fassi

      In 2008 Morocco suffered as a result of the global economic crisis that precipitated high energy and food prices. Consumer prices rose by 5.4%, and inflation climbed to 3%; in the first half of the year, food imports were up by 66%, and energy imports increased 62.5%. As a result, consumer subsidies rose by about $5.2 billion, compared with an annual budget allocation of about $2 billion. In addition, imports were expected to rise by $4 billion to $33 billion during the year. Foreign direct investment, however, continued to be strong, at $3 billion, and remittances reached $3.5 billion by June.

      The political scene remained gloomy after the September 2007 legislative elections. Muhammad al-Yazghi, the leader of the left-wing Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP), which had experienced a drop in voter support, resigned in the wake of the elections. Despite having failed to elect a replacement at its mid-June congress, in mid-November the USFP chose veteran politician Abdalwahid al-Radi as its new leader. Though the Justice and Development Party (PJD) also did worse than anticipated and was expected to choose more radical leadership, the Islamist PJD in July instead selected as its leader veteran moderate and palace loyalist ʿAbd al-Illah Benkirane. Former deputy interior minister Fouad Ali al-Himma, a close associate of King Muhammad VI, announced in July that he would form a new party, the Authenticity and Modernity Party, just as the king indicated that he wanted parties to coalesce into larger groups to improve political activities.

      The security situation continued to be worrying, especially following the March 2007 suicide bombing of an Internet cafe in Casablanca; 47 people were convicted (one was sentenced to up to 30 years' imprisonment) in October 2008 for having taken part in the blast. In June, 29 persons from Tetouan were sentenced for having recruited Moroccan fighters for terrorist attacks in Iraq. The uncovering of a major terrorist ring—led by ʿAbd al-Qadir Belliraj, a former member of the 1970s extremist group al-Shabiba al-Islamiya (Islamic Youth)—led to 35 arrests in February.

      Despite direct negotiation between Morocco and the Polisario Front over the disputed region of the Western Sahara, a solution was not found. Though King Muhammad VI supported French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy's initiative for the establishment of a Union for the Mediterranean, he failed to attend the inaugural conference in July in Paris, owing to his irritation over French overtures to Algeria (where Polisario camps housed Saharawi refugees).

George Joffé

▪ 2008

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2007 est.): 31,704,000, of which Western Sahara 480,000 (excluding 150,000 Saharawi refugees living near Tindouf, Alg., from 1975)

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Ministers Driss Jettou and, from September 19, Abbas al-Fassi

      Morocco had been relatively free from political violence following the suicide bombings in May 2003 in Casablanca, but by 2007 the potential for violence had flared once again. There was growing frustration with the government, which was unable to address the poor economic situation. Though a recent flood of foreign investment from the Persian Gulf states had promoted a number of prestige projects, such as the refurbishment of the Bou Regreg river valley and the development of new tourist facilities in Marrakesh, these improvements did little to alleviate the high unemployment in Morocco.

      In early March a young man from the poverty-stricken district of Sidi Moumen in Casablanca blew himself up in an Internet café after an altercation with the owner. On April 10 three suicide bombers blew themselves up in Casablanca and a fourth was shot by police. Four days later the U.S. consulate and a privately run U.S. cultural centre came under attack when two suicide bombers (brothers) detonated their explosives near the buildings. Police later apprehended three suspected accomplices and were able to connect all the perpetrators in the March–April bombings. A bomb that had been placed on a tourist bus in Meknes in August was disarmed before it exploded.

      In the legislative elections on Sept. 7, 2007, only 37% of voters went to the polls, the lowest turnout in the country's history. Though the moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD) was expected to double its representation in the lower house of the parliament (and it had won the largest share of the vote), gerrymandering of electoral constituency boundaries denied the PJD the largest number of seats. The veteran nationalist Istiqlal party won 52 seats, followed by the PJD (46), the centrist Popular Movement (MP; 41), and the conservative National Rally of Independents (RNI; 39). The former ruling party, the Union of Socialist Popular Forces (USFP), came in fifth with only 38 seats. The king honoured an earlier pledge by asking Abbas al-Fassi, the leader of Istiqlal, to form a new government.

 Relations with Spain became strained in November when King Juan Carlos of Spain visited Ceuta and Melilla, two Spanish enclaves that had long been claimed by Morocco. Relations between the two countries had improved dramatically since Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero took office in 2004.

George Joffé

▪ 2007

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2006 est.): 30,646,000, of which Western Sahara 372,000 (excluding 165,000 Saharawi refugees living near Tindouf, Alg., from 1975)

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister Driss Jettou

      Morocco's free-trade agreement with the United States came into force in January 2006. Virtually all tariffs would disappear, although cereals would continue to be protected. A similar long-delayed free-trade agreement was signed in July with Egypt, Tunisia, and Jordan. Morocco's foreign relations improved in 2006; links with the U.S. were reinforced, and new commercial ties were established with China. NATO held its first meeting in an Arab country, in Rabat, in April. That month UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan reluctantly abandoned his support for a referendum for self-determination in the Western Sahara and proposed instead direct negotiations between Morocco and the Polisario Front. Despite opposition from Algeria and the Polisario Front, the proposal was endorsed by the United States, France, and Spain. Morocco repeated its offer of autonomy status for the territory but rejected independence.

      The domestic front was marked by two major concerns—the growing strength of the country's Islamist movements and the future status of the monarchy. The moderate Islamist party, the Justice and Development Party (PJD), was expected to increase its vote in the 2007 legislative elections and thereby become the largest party in the legislature. This prompted its semilegal rival, Justice and Charity, to become more active; in May it organized a series of public meetings around the country. The government, in turn, arrested 500 Justice and Charity members on the grounds that the party sought the violent overthrow of the monarchy. Those arrested were released a few days later. Although the movement maintained that it was nonviolent, its leader, Sheikh Abdessalam Yassine, announced that 2006 would be the year of qawma (“revolt”), and his daughter expressly called for the removal of the monarchy, although her trial for this offense in 2005 had been repeatedly postponed.

      Government vigilance over threats to the political system was underlined in September with the arrest of 56 people, including 5 soldiers and 2 policemen, all members of Jamaʾat al-Ansar al-Mahdi, a clandestine pro-al-Qaeda group. The government claimed that 50 extremist groups involving 2,000 persons had been dissolved since the Casablanca massacres in May 2003, but observers suspected that the government wanted to undermine popular support for the PJD prior to the elections. The year was marked by concerns that Morocco's political liberalization had stalled. Nevertheless, political parties aired suggestions for subordinating the judiciary, the armed forces, and the administration to the legislature rather than to the monarchy. The monarchy's sacrosanct position, as defined by article 19 of the constitution, was also questioned.

      The palace, meanwhile, used the alleged extremists as an excuse to reorder its security structures. Among other changes, Gen. Hamidou Laanigri, head of security, was replaced by a civilian. The government also decided to end conscription and to restructure the military security system. Economic indicators were encouraging, owing partly to a bumper harvest. Real GDP growth was set at 7.3% and inflation at 3.7%, owing partially to high oil prices. Price liberalization was delayed, despite proposals in July to remove subsidies. In July, Prime Minister Driss Jettou claimed that illiteracy had fallen from 55% in 1998 to 40% in 2006.

George Joffé

▪ 2006

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2005 est.): 30,230,000, of which Western Sahara 341,000 (excluding 170,000 Saharawi refugees living near Tindouf, Alg., from 1975)

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister Driss Jettou

      The Western Sahara issue continued to dominate Morocco's diplomatic horizons in 2005 as the government struggled for a solution after having rejected the Baker Plan in 2004. At the start of the year, an attempted mediation by France and Spain ran up against Algerian intransigence, which was not mitigated by the meeting in March between King Muhammad VI and Algeria's Pres. Abdelaziz Bouteflika in Algiers. In the wake of riots in the region in May, 100 Western Saharans were arrested amid accusations of police brutality. In June, Moroccan Prime Minister Driss Jettou met his Spanish counterpart, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, for discussions on the issue and on the growing problem of illegal immigration via Morocco into Spain. Shortly afterward Kenya recognized the Arab Saharan Democratic Republic, forcing Morocco to recall its ambassador from Nairobi.

 Despite the Polisario Front's late August goodwill gesture of releasing the remaining 404 prisoners it held, the Moroccan government offered it no concessions. Instead, in November the king offered Western Saharans full internal autonomy in return for recognition of Moroccan sovereignty over the region. The immigration issue came to a head in the same month as illegal immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere tried to rush the border fences between Morocco and the two Spanish presidios of Ceuta and Melilla. For the first time, Spain began to return illegal immigrants to Morocco, which in turn tried to force them across its frontiers until deterred by United Nations complaints.

      Anxieties were voiced about press freedom in Morocco after journalist Ali Lamrabet was fined and banned from practicing journalism for 10 years as a result of his comments about the Western Sahara. At the same time, the radical weekly TelQuel survived its publication of the detailed expenditures of the royal court. Moroccans also saw televised testimony about the “Years of Lead”—the repression under the king's father.

      Morocco continued to be in the economic doldrums, despite further attempts at liberalizing the economy, with promises of full dirham convertibility soon. Global increases in oil prices forced the government to increase fuel prices twice—by 8% in May and 5% in October. Irregular rainfall patterns meant a poor harvest, with agricultural production falling by 21% in value by August, and Morocco's GDP fell by 3% as a result.

George Joffé

▪ 2005

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2004 est.): 30,569,000, of which Western Sahara 267,000 (excluding 165,000 Saharawi refugees living near Tindouf, Alg., from 1975)

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister Driss Jettou

      For Moroccan King Muhammad VI, 2004 was a year full of worries. There was a good harvest, but the rise in global oil prices adversely affected the external account, and domestic economic growth continued to be inadequate to mitigate the social and political consequences of poverty. Though Morocco had signed a free-trade agreement with the United States on June 15, Washington still seemed to look with favour on Algiers, and the situation in the Western Sahara and relations with neighbouring Algeria continued to be worrisome. Despite efforts to root out Islamic extremism in the aftermath of the Casablanca suicide bombings in mid-May 2003, Moroccans were deeply implicated in the March 2004 bombings of the Madrid suburban railway system that caused at least 200 deaths. Despite toughened legislation and renewed vigilance by the security forces, urban violence and support for Islamist extremists increased alarmingly in Morocco.

      In June King Muhammad VI reappointed his technocrat Prime Minister Driss Jettou and surrounded him with a more nonpartisan, technocratic cabinet than in the past. Some major political figures, such as Khalid Alioua, moved to the private sector, but the major political parties maintained their cabinet presence. The objective of the reshuffle was clearly linked to the need to stimulate the economy in relatively adverse conditions as growth proved to be sluggish, despite a cereals harvest of 8.3 million metric tons. Morocco's foreign currency reserves also rose by 21.5% by midyear to $14 billion, but GDP growth stubbornly remained at 5.5% and was predicted to fall to 3.5% in 2005. The World Bank provided a $100 million loan for administrative reform in July.

      Morocco was increasingly eager to resolve the Western Sahara dispute in the wake of James Baker's resignation as UN special envoy and, in the light of increased French and Spanish support, had been pushing Algeria to bring pressure to bear on the Polisario Front, the Western Saharan liberation movement based in Algeria. Toward the end of the year, regional tensions over the issue hardened as Morocco accused Algeria of supplying military aid to the Polisario Front and of mobilizing its forces; South Africa recognized the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic in September.

      In January the parliament approved Morocco's new family law, the Mudawwanah, which effectively rendered the status of males and females equal before the law. The government was eager to extend its privatization program as part of renewed economic restructuring designed to address the problem of job creation; during the year an estimated $1.5 billion was earned from sales of public assets.

George Joffé

▪ 2004

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2003 est.): 30,097,000, of which Western Sahara 262,000

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister Driss Jettou

      Morocco was forced into the spotlight of global terrorism in 2003 when on May 16 a group of 12 suicide bombers struck at 5 locations in Casablanca, killing 45 persons including the bombers and injuring 100. According to government sources, all were members of as-Sirat al-Mustaqim, part of the Salafiya-Jihadiya movement, and all were from the poverty-stricken Casablanca district of Sidi Moumin. Other observers, however, claimed links with al-Qaeda, especially as the attacks came four days after similar suicide attacks in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

      In the wake of the incidents, the Moroccan parliament passed a ferocious antiterrorism law, and 16 persons allegedly involved in the incidents were arrested. They went on trial in late May, but the alleged ringleader, Moul Sebbat, died in police custody shortly after his arrest in Fez—from chronic liver damage while being transferred to the hospital, according to the police. At the start of June, a French national was also arrested in connection with the incidents and was sentenced to life in prison at his trial.

      The Moroccan political spring also seemed to have come to an end with the arrest and condemnation to four years' imprisonment of Ali Lmrabet, the editor of Demain and Doumane, for having insulted the king—the first time this offense had been prosecuted in 30 years. On appeal his sentence was reduced to three years, but Lmrabet went on a hunger strike to protest his condemnation. In mid-October at the opening of the parliamentary session, King Muhammad VI announced radical changes to Morocco's family law, the Mudawwanah, which dramatically improved the position of women without outraging Islamist sentiment.

      Morocco had to deal with an unexpected turn in the Western Sahara independence issue in August when the Algerian government persuaded the Polisario Front, the Western Saharan national liberation movement, to accept the Baker Plan. The plan anticipated a referendum for self-determination after five years of autonomy under Moroccan suzerainty, but Moroccans feared that if the plan was enacted, Morocco's claim to sovereignty in the region would eventually be sapped. The Polisario Front also accelerated prisoner releases during the year. At the start of 2003, Morocco began negotiations with the United States over a free-trade-area agreement and renewed diplomatic relations with Spain, which had been broken off in October 2001.

George Joffé

▪ 2003

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2002 est.): 29,632,000, of which Western Sahara 256,000

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Ministers ʿAbd al-Rahman Youssoufi and, from October 9, Driss Jettou

      Moroccans went to the polls on Sept. 27, 2002, to elect a new 325-member House of Representatives. For the first time, 10% of the seats were reserved for women and the immigrant population was excluded from the vote. Twenty-six parties took part in the election. The turnout was low—only 52% of the electorate voted. The Socialist Union of Popular Forces won 50 seats, followed by the former independence party, Istiqlal (48 seats). The surprise result was that the Islamist Party of Justice and Development (42 seats) edged past the conservative National Assembly of Independents (41 seats). In a move that was highly criticized, King Mohammed VI did not call upon the leader of the largest party to form the new government but instead turned to former interior minister and technocrat Driss Jettou, who had no party affiliation.

      Relations with Spain—which had been poor since 2001—were further strained in July. After Morocco sent soldiers to the disputed though unoccupied islet of Leila/Perejil, Spain invaded the islet (near Ceuta in the Strait of Gibraltar) and expelled the six gendarmes. Though the U.S. brokered an agreement to leave the islet unoccupied, relations between the two countries remained at a low level for the remainder of the year.

      The longtime territorial dispute between Morocco and the Polisario Front over the Western Sahara was raised at the UN Security Council in January and again in July. At the January meeting, the peace plan put forward in 2001 by special UN envoy James Baker was discussed, and the secretary-general offered four alternative approaches. The Security Council renewed the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) mandate for six months. In July Baker agreed to reformulate his plan, and the MINURSO mandate was renewed for an additional six months, albeit in an atmosphere of generalized frustration.

      In the Western Sahara itself, protests continued over Morocco's occupation of the region. Attacks on a police station in El Aaiun in June resulted in a series of arrests, as did protests over persons who had disappeared from the Western Sahara. Human rights organizations continued to point to the Western Sahara situation as the one remaining area where doubt remained about Morocco's human rights record.

George Joffé

▪ 2002

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2001 est.): 29,237,000, of which Western Sahara 251,000

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister ʿAbd ar-Rahman Youssoufi

      Moroccans became worried during 2001 over a slowdown in political liberalization after the banning of three newspapers (Le Journal, Demain, and Assahifa) in December 2000 and the arrest of three French TV journalists. The newspapers had published information about a letter from a veteran opposition leader, Muhammad Basri, admitting links between the Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP) and the organizer of an unsuccessful coup in 1972. Though the USFP dominated the government coalition and vehemently objected to the accusation, the newspaper ban was lifted after international protest in January.

      Anxiety mounted with the arrest of Hannouda Taibi, a journalist on the USFP newspaper Al-Ittihad al-Ishtiraki, and the king's decision in January to cancel a planned meeting with the directors of the International Federation for Human Rights. In May 36 human rights activists from the Association Marocaine des Droits Humains—who had been arrested during a protest the previous December—were sentenced to three months in prison. Concerns were heightened when the interior minister was replaced in September by former businessman Driss Jettou in a move to reassert royal control.

      The Moroccan government welcomed the appointment of Margaret Tutwiler as U.S. ambassador to Morocco; she had been a close associate of James Baker, the U.S. secretary of state under the former George H.W. Bush administration, and her appointment was seen as an expression of American confidence in King Muhammed VI. Baker, serving as special envoy for the UN secretary-general in resolving the 25-year-long territorial dispute between Morocco and the Polisario Front over the Western Sahara, put forward a new peace plan in June, just before the UN Security Council granted a five-month extension to the peacekeeping force there. The plan envisioned limited autonomy for the region under Moroccan sovereignty for a five-year period, after which the promised referendum for self-determination could be held. Algeria, the Polisario Front's main backer, objected to the plan, and the Polisario Front rejected it. In the first visit of his reign, King Muhammad VI traveled to the Western Sahara in November to underscore Morocco's claim to the disputed area.

George Joffé

▪ 2001

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq km (97,344-sq mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(2000 est.): 29,067,000, of which Western Sahara 245,000

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister ʿAbd ar-Rahman Youssoufi

      Morocco in 2000 continued to be dogged by the twin problems of the Western Sahara and a sluggish economy. Nonetheless, the new king, Muhammad VI, sought a series of bold social initiatives to begin the process of fundamental social and political reform. The UN Security Council in January and again on four other occasions reluctantly renewed the mandate for the peacekeeping force in the Western Sahara. Relations with Algeria, which had been poisoned by the Western Sahara issue, improved slightly after the Euro-African summit in Cairo despite threats in May by the Polisario Front independence movement in Western Sahara to breach the cease-fire. The two countries agreed to cooperate over border security after Algerian Islamists threatened a Moroccan border village in midyear. The Polisario Front in December released 201 Moroccan soldiers that it had captured 25 years previously at the start of the conflict over the Western Sahara; 1,481 Moroccans remained prisoners of the Polisario Front

      The king's proposals during the year for a new family code that would have outlawed polygamy and given women greater equality with men and guarantees of political participation met with furious opposition. Morocco's Islamist movements organized a 500,000-strong demonstration against the proposals on March 12 in Casablanca, compared with a 40,000-strong demonstration in support of them in Rabat. Nevertheless, Morocco's veteran Islamist leader, Abdesalam Yassine, was released from house arrest after 11 years in mid-May. In December police in Rabat arrested dozens of peaceful demonstrators, who were demanding the legalization of their outlawed Muslim fundamentalist group, Al Adl Wal Ihsane.

      The problems facing the government continued, with unemployment heading the list, followed by the ongoing drought. About $350 million was provided for drought relief in the June–December budget, which anticipated a budget deficit of 1% of gross domestic product, 3% growth of GDP, and inflation at only 2.3%. Grain production fell by 50% to 1,820,000 metric tons, and 5,200,000 tons had to be imported during the year. Good economic news emerged in August, when oil was discovered in commercial quantities at Talsint, close to the border with Algeria, which raised hopes that Morocco's domestic needs, 160,00 bbl per day, would be met. King Muhammad VI in late March made his first official trip abroad, to France, where he sought French support for full partnership status within the European Union.

George Joffé

▪ 2000

Area:

710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq km (97,344-sq mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

Population

(1999 est.): 28,591,000, of which Western Sahara 284,000

Capital:

Rabat

Head of state and government:

King Hassan II and, from July 23, Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister ʿAbd ar-Rahman Youssoufi

      The long-anticipated change of regime took place in Morocco with the sudden death of the veteran king, Hassan II, on July 23, 1999, at the age of 70. (See Obituaries (Hassan II ).) He was immediately succeeded by his eldest son, Sidi Muhammad, who took the name Muhammad VI. (See Biographies (Muhammad VI ).) The former king's funeral proved to be a major event and was attended by 30 world statesmen, including representatives from Europe and U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton. The new king celebrated his accession to the throne by issuing an amnesty for almost 8,000 persons and clemency for an additional 38,000 prisoners.

      Although the new king had a reputation as a “modernizer” and had made it clear that he wished to create a political system along the lines of the Juan Carlos monarchy in Spain, most observers expected him to make haste slowly, given Morocco's many problems. Certain changes developed rapidly, however. It soon became evident that the former king's closest adviser, Driss Basri, the long-term interior minister, had lost much of his influence. In midyear he lost control of the domestic security services when the new king appointed a new director without consulting him, and he also lost his role in the Western Sahara peace process when Morocco's UN ambassador was changed. Basri was dismissed from his post in November. Disturbances in the Western Saharan capital, El Aauin, in late September as a result of student discontent were severely repressed, but the king hastened to send a ministerial delegation there to reassure those involved that their grievances would be attended to. Nonetheless, the referendum over the future of the territory was delayed once again.

      More substantial were the changes in the official approach to human rights issues. Although the previous administration had banned an Amnesty International conference scheduled to be held in Morocco in June, King Muhammad VI reversed his father's opposition to the return to the country of its most famous human rights activist, Abraham Serfaty, who returned in early October.

      Despite these moves, Morocco continued to face many problems, including a burgeoning Islamist movement, now represented in the parliament by nine deputies, and unemployment at about 30%. According to the king in his speech opening the parliamentary session at the start of October, 48% of the adult population was illiterate, and the country's educational system was failing to provide the skills needed for the modern world.

George Joffé

▪ 1999

      Area: 710,850 sq km (274,461 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq km (97,344-sq mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation

      Population (1998 est.): 28,060,000, of which Western Sahara 288,000.

      Capital: Rabat

      Head of state and government: King Hassan II, assisted by Prime Minister ʿAbd al-Latif Filali and, from February 4, ʿAbd ar-Rahman Youssoufi

      The new parliamentary system in Morocco was introduced in January 1998 with the appointment of presidents for the upper and lower chambers. In February the veteran Socialist Union of Popular Forces leader, ʿAbd ar-Rahman Youssoufi, was asked to form a government, and in March the new coalition government was announced, with the interior, defense, justice, foreign affairs, and religious portfolios remaining unchanged. Its policies were to be directed toward a resolution of the long-standing Western Sahara dispute, social issues, and bureaucratic reform. Economic policy would remain fundamentally unchanged, though, in a bid to maximize agricultural output, import taxes on grains were doubled to encourage domestic production.

      The determination of the new government to break with the past soon became evident. The prime minister, during meetings with his North African counterparts, encouraged the revival of the regional Arab Maghreb Union and sought to reduce tensions with Algeria despite disagreements over Western Sahara. The remaining political prisoners were released, and the exiled Abraham Serfaty had his Moroccan passport restored as the justice system was overhauled. The draft budget in June sought to cut unemployment and reduce administrative costs while raising spending on health and housing without increases in taxation.

      Progress on the Western Sahara issue was less encouraging. A dispute continued over the status of three tribes, totaling 65,000 persons, and, despite the registration of 147,000 persons as voters in the proposed referendum for self-determination, the referendum itself had to be delayed a year beyond its December 1998 deadline. The new government appeared as determined as its predecessors to ensure a Moroccan victory despite considerable external support for the opposition Polisario Front, particularly from Algeria.

      The Asian and Russian crises had marginal direct effects on the Moroccan economy, although concern was expressed that cheap Asian exports might hurt Morocco's exports to Europe, and citrus exports to Russia were expected to be cut. The key to economic performance, as ever, was the agricultural sector. Good rains ensured an improved grain output, and gross domestic product grew by an estimated 7%, compared with a decline in 1997.

GEORGE JOFFÉ

▪ 1998

      Area: 458,730 sq km (177,117 sq mi) (Area and population figures refer to Morocco as constituted prior to the purported division of Western Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania and the subsequent Moroccan occupation of the Mauritanian zone in 1979.)

      Population (1997 est.): 27,225,000

      Capital: Rabat

      Chief of state: King Hassan II

      Head of government: Prime Minister ˋAbd al-Latif Filali

      For Morocco 1997 was a year of constitutional restructuring, alongside the ongoing restructuring of the economy. The constitutional changes approved by referendum in 1996 came into effect, with municipal elections in June and legislative elections for the new bicameral parliament in November. The municipal elections returned a 56% vote for the centre and right-wing parties, to the surprise of most observers, who had expected the left-of-centre Democratic Bloc (Koutla) to do better than its rivals. The Democratic Bloc won only 32% of the vote in a 75.13% turnout of eligible voters. The municipal elections were important for the legislative elections later in the year because the municipalities would choose 60% of the members of the new upper chamber, all of whom were to be indirectly elected, with the professional associations electing the remaining 40%.

      As the legislative elections neared, the Democratic Bloc alliance broke up in late September. Consequently, a National Entente victory was anticipated, with the pro-government Constitutional Union and National Assembly of Independents playing key roles in the government that would emerge. This development also fed anxieties that unless the parties could demonstrate political maturity as they governed, popular support for the new constitutional arrangements—a critical part of the king's vision for transition to a constitutional monarchy—would be fatally undermined. The elections, which were held on November 14 for the 325-seat House of Representatives, produced 102 seats for the Koutla, 100 for the right-wing National Entente (Wifaq) alliance, 97 for the centre parties, 9 for the Islamists, and 17 for the others. The voter turnout was 58.3%.

      Morocco's major diplomatic problem, the Western Sahara dispute, apparently moved closer to solution when the UN secretary-general, Kofi Annan, appointed a former U.S. secretary of state, James Baker, as his special envoy. After four meetings in which Morocco and the opposition Polisario Front met face-to-face, Baker announced in October that terms had been reached that would enable the long-delayed referendum for self-determination to be held in 1998. Morocco abandoned some of its demands for voter registration, and the Polisario Front made similar concessions over voting procedures.

      In economic terms Morocco experienced modest growth after the outstanding recovery in 1996 as a result of the record grain harvest of 10 million metric tons. Growth was expected to be between 1% and 2.5%, compared with 11.8% in 1996; the harvest was estimated to total 3,350,000 metric tons. As a result, grain imports were expected to reach 2.5 million metric tons in 1997-98.

GEORGE JOFFÉ

      This article updates Morocco, history of (Morocco).

▪ 1997

      A constitutional monarchy of North Africa, Morocco has coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 458,730 sq km (177,117 sq mi). Pop. (1996 est.): 26,736,000. (Area and population figures refer to Morocco as constituted prior to the purported division of Western Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania and the subsequent Moroccan occupation of the Mauritanian zone in 1979.) Cap.: Rabat. Monetary unit: dirham, with (Oct. 11, 1996) a free rate of 8.79 dirhams to U.S. $1 (13.84 dirhams = £1 sterling). King, Hassan II; prime minister in 1996, 'Abd al-Latif Filali.

      On March 3, 1996, King Hassan announced that proposals for constitutional reforms would be presented later in the year. In essence the reforms, which had been foreshadowed a year earlier, would provide for a bicameral legislature. Members of the lower house, the Majlis an-Nawwab, would be directly elected every five years and would enact the country's legislation. The upper chamber, the Majlis ash-Shura, would be a consultative body, with its members indirectly elected from the municipalities, the professional organizations, and the "salaried classes"; one-third of the members would be replaced every three years. The reforms were approved in a national referendum on September 13, and legislative elections were promised for April 1997, although they would probably be held later in the year.

      In a further administrative move, this time in response to criticism from other countries, a major antidrug and antismuggling campaign was launched in January under the control of Interior Minister Driss Basri. The campaign led to the resignation of the minister for human rights, Muhammad Ziane, who had criticized the campaign as an "abuse of power." His responsibilities were assumed by the justice minister, Abderrahmane Amalou. The campaign also generated much complaint because of the delays it caused to importers and exporters alike, and there were accusations that it was really undertaken for the benefit of powerful figures. Nevertheless, the campaign muted French and Dutch criticisms of the $1.8 billion apparently earned from Moroccan drug sales in Europe.

      Morocco's privatization program continued; 25% of the refining company Samir was sold in March, and the terms of the sale were eased in October so as to encourage foreign investors. Despite receiving $450 million of private foreign investment in 1995 and having the most highly deregulated financial sector in the Middle East and North Africa, Morocco continued to lag behind its target of gaining $1 billion in foreign investment annually. The South Korean company Daewoo, however, announced in September that it would invest $500 million over the next five years in tourism, telecommunications, and automobile manufacturing. (GEORGE JOFFÉ)

      This article updates Morocco, history of (Morocco).

▪ 1996

      A constitutional monarchy of North Africa, Morocco has coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 458,730 sq km (177,117 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 26,980,000. (Area and population figures refer to Morocco as constituted prior to the purported division of Western Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania and the subsequent Moroccan occupation of the Mauritanian zone in 1979.) Cap.: Rabat. Monetary unit: dirham, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 8.45 dirhams to U.S. $1 (13.36 dirhams = £1 sterling). King, Hassan II; prime minister, 'Abd al-Latif Filali.

      The conflict between Morocco and the Polisario Front over the control of Western Sahara continued to drag on throughout 1995, with new difficulties emerging over the registration process for voters in the planned self-determination referendum. As a result of the disputes, the referendum was postponed again until mid-1996 at the earliest, despite objections from the Polisario Front. Tensions in the Western Sahara were highlighted in midyear when eight Saharans were condemned to long periods of imprisonment (later reduced to one year each by King Hassan) for anti-Moroccan demonstrations in El Aaiun.

      The most important problems facing Morocco during 1995 were, however, economic in nature. Negotiations for a new association agreement with the European Union (EU) were finally concluded in November; indeed, because the concept of the industrial free-trade area had been developed with Morocco specifically in mind, it was expected to be the first nation to sign such an agreement. During the negotiations, however, many problems emerged, not least the question of what would happen to Morocco's developing industrial sector if the transitional terms were not carefully set. Some reports suggested that up to 60% of the sector would be destroyed by competition with European producers.

      Difficulties over agriculture and fishing also delayed signature of the association agreement. In midyear Morocco demanded the renegotiation of its fishing agreement with the EU, proposing a reduction of between 35% and 65% in catches, depending on the species, in order to preserve fishing stocks. It also insisted that 35% of all fishing crews be Moroccan and that landings take place in Morocco. Spain, which operated 650 of the 730 licensed EU fishing boats, was adamant that it could not agree to such terms.

      Quite apart from these external problems, however, Morocco faced a domestic crisis as a lack of rainfall caused the harvest to fall to an estimated 1.6 million metric tons, compared with 9.4 million metric tons the year before. Gross domestic product was expected to fall by about 4%, compared with an increase of some 12% in 1994, which thus underlined the continuing dependence of the Moroccan economy on rainfall and the agricultural sector, despite a decade of economic restructuring. A confidential report prepared for the Moroccan government underlined the consequences of this dependence, warning that Morocco faced losing all the gains it had made since 1983 unless further restructuring was undertaken without delay. Foreign direct investment figures emphasized the plight the country faced; despite the ambitious privatization program, investment continued to fall—by 7.3% in 1994. (GEORGE JOFFÉ)

      This updates the article Morocco, history of (Morocco).

▪ 1995

      A constitutional monarchy of North Africa, Morocco has coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 458,730 sq km (177,117 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 26,544,000. (Area and population figures refer to Morocco as constituted prior to the purported division of Western Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania and the subsequent Moroccan occupation of the Mauritanian zone in 1979.) Cap.: Rabat. Monetary unit: dirham, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 8.83 dirhams to U.S. $1 (14.04 dirhams = £1 sterling). King, Hassan II; prime ministers in 1994, Muhammad Karim Lamrani and, from May 25, 'Abd al-Latif Filali.

      The veteran Moroccan prime minister, Muhammad Karim Lamrani, stepped down on May 25, 1994, and was replaced by 'Abd al-Latif Filali, the foreign minister, who was linked by marriage to the royal family. The Cabinet remained unchanged, however, as Filali retained his Foreign Affairs portfolio. The new government was expected to preside over the building of a new political consensus in Morocco, with the political parties coalescing into two groups, the opposition Democratic Bloc and the pro-government Entente Nationale. In a surprising move in August, King Hassan called for the integration of Morocco's Berber languages and culture into national life.

      In March UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali announced new proposals to resolve the Western Sahara crisis. They involved three choices: carrying out a referendum for self-determination there regardless of the attitudes of Morocco and the Polisario Front (the Western Saharan national liberation movement); withdrawing the UN presence in the region; or pursuing negotiations with a view to completing voter registration in order for a referendum to be held by the end of the year. The UN Security Council endorsed the third option, as did the political parties, but the Polisario Front voiced strong reservations. Voter registration did not begin until August because of Morocco's objections to Organization of African Unity participation. Nonetheless, Prime Minister Filali forecast in October that the referendum would finally be held in February or March 1995, but a later date appeared to be more likely.

      Morocco took advantage of the expanding peace process in the Middle East to open low-level diplomatic relations with Israel in September. At the same time, it was announced that diplomatic representation was to be established in the Palestinian self-rule area in the Gaza Strip. The country's major industrial conglomerate, Omnium Nord Africain, was also seeking industrial and financial links with Israel.

      Morocco's relations with its North African neighbours did not fare so well, however. Tensions with Algeria rose in August after Algerian Pres. Liamine Zeroual criticized the Moroccan presence in the Western Sahara. There was also growing anxiety over increasing influence of the Islamic Salvation Front in eastern Morocco. At the end of August two Spanish tourists were killed in a hotel in Marrakech by members of a combined Algerian-Moroccan Islamist group based in France. In response, Morocco imposed visas on all Algerians visiting the country. Algeria then closed its border with Morocco in protest against the Moroccan decision. (GEORGE JOFFÉ)

      This updates the article Morocco, history of (Morocco).

▪ 1994

      A constitutional monarchy of North Africa, Morocco has coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 458,730 sq km (177,117 sq mi). Pop. (1993 est.): 26,494,000. (Area and population figures refer to Morocco as constituted prior to the purported division of Western Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania and the subsequent Moroccan occupation of the Mauritanian zone in 1979.) Cap.: Rabat. Monetary unit: dirham, with (Oct. 4, 1993) a free rate of 9.04 dirhams to U.S. $1 (13.70 dirhams = £1 sterling). King, Hassan II; prime minister in 1993, Mohamed Karim Lamrani.

      The domestic scene in Morocco during 1993 was dominated by the parliamentary elections. The first round of the elections (for the 222 directly elected seats) took place on June 25 and resulted in a win for the left-wing Socialist Union of Populist Forces (USFP), which obtained 48 seats. The Democratic Bloc, an alliance of the USFP, the Independence Party (Istiqlal), the Party of Progress and Socialism, and the Organization for Democratic and Popular Action, won 99 of the 222 seats. The remainder were largely captured by the five loyalist parties. (For tabulation results, see Political Parties, above.) In the indirect elections for the remaining 111 seats, held on September 17, the loyalist parties radically improved their position, with the USFP picking up only four additional seats. The USFP was still expected to form a new government.

      In early October, however, the USFP announced that it would not form a government, apparently because the party perceived that it either would have to form a coalition or would be a minority government. Furthermore, the USFP leader, 'Abd ar-Rahman al-Yousifi, resigned his post as a protest against electoral fraud. Relations with the Royal Palace were strained as a result. The new government was eventually drawn from the ranks of the loyalist parties, thus signaling that Morocco was ultimately concerned about political continuity rather than radical experiment. Continuity was also emphasized by the opening of the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca—the largest in the world outside Saudi Arabia—at an estimated cost of $500 million.

      Despite problems created by a poor harvest (with consequent declines in economic growth and increases in imports and the current account deficit), Morocco continued to attract international attention as a good investment risk. Receipts from the privatization program exceeded the $214 million target figure as the first large-scale foreign purchases began.

      The Western Sahara issue continued to dominate foreign affairs, especially as Morocco's relations with Algeria remained strained. The Polisario Front demonstrated its continued fighting ability with a military parade in Tindouf on May 20 and its willingness to negotiate during meetings in El Aaiun with Moroccan officials over procedures for the planned referendum. The major problem continued to be the voting lists to be used, with the Polisario Front insisting on the 1974 Spanish census of the Western Sahara as the guide and Morocco demanding inclusion of an additional 120,000 Sahrawis, who they said had been forced out of the territory by Spain. The UN, which was providing a monitoring force, MINURSO, tried to revive negotiations with a visit by Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali in June and later announced preparations for a new census. (GEORGE JOFFÉ)

      This updates the article Morocco, history of (Morocco).

* * *

Introduction

Morocco, flag of mountainous country of western North Africa that lies directly across the Strait of Gibraltar (Gibraltar, Strait of) from Spain.

      The traditional domain of indigenous nomadic peoples—now collectively known as Berbers, but more correctly referred to as Imazighen (Berber) (singular, Amazigh (Berber))—Morocco has been subject to extensive migration and has long been the location of sedentary, urban communities that were originally settled by peoples from outside the region. Controlled by Carthage from an early date, the region was later the westernmost province of the Roman Empire (Roman Republic and Empire). Following the Arab conquest of the late 7th century CE, the broader area of North Africa came to be known as the Maghrib (Arabic: “the West”), and the majority of its people accepted Islam. Subsequent Moroccan kingdoms enjoyed political influence that extended beyond the coastal regions, and in the 11th century the first native Amazigh dynasty of North Africa, the Almoravids, gained control of an empire stretching from Andalusian (southern) Spain to parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Attempts by Europeans to establish permanent footholds in Morocco beginning in the late 15th century were largely repulsed, but the country later became the subject of Great Power politics in the 19th century. Morocco was made a French protectorate in 1912 but regained independence in 1956. Today it is the only monarchy in North Africa.

      Although the country is rapidly modernizing and enjoys a rising standard of living, it retains much of its ancient architecture and even more of its traditional customs. Morocco's largest city and major Atlantic Ocean port is Casablanca, an industrial and commercial centre. The capital, Rabat, lies a short distance to the north on the Atlantic coast. Other port cities include Tangier, on the Strait of Gibraltar, Agadir, on the Atlantic, and Al-Hoceïma, on the Mediterranean Sea. The city of Fès is said to have some of the finest souks, or open-air markets, in all North Africa. Scenic and fertile, Morocco well merits the praise of a native son, the medieval traveler Ibn Baṭṭūṭah, who wrote “it is the best of countries, for in it fruits are plentiful, and running water and nourishing food are never exhausted.”

Land (Morocco)

 Morocco borders Algeria to the east and southeast, Western Sahara to the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north. It is the only African country with coastal exposure to both the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Its area—excluding the territory of Western Sahara, which Morocco controls—is slightly larger than the U.S. state of California. Two small Spanish enclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, are situated on the country's northern coast.

Relief

  Most of Morocco lies at high elevations, averaging about 2,600 feet (800 metres) above sea level. Two chains of mountains divide eastern from Atlantic Morocco: the Rif Mountains (Rif) in the north form a buffer along the Mediterranean coastline, whereas the Atlas Mountains create a barrier across the centre. The two parts of the country are connected by the narrow Taza Gap in the northeast as well as by roads that follow older traditional routes. The Atlas and Rif ranges were formed during the Tertiary Period (between about 65 to 1.8 million years ago) by the folding and uplifting of sediment that had accumulated in the Tethys Sea, which, at that time, bordered the northern coast of Africa.

 The Rif Mountains are geologically part of the cordilleras (mountain chains) reaching southward from the Iberian Peninsula of Europe, from which Africa was separated only after the Tertiary Period. The crescent-shaped range rises abruptly from a narrow Mediterranean coastal plain. Most of the limestone peaks in the Rif Mountains surpass 4,900 feet (1,500 metres) and rise to 8,058 feet (2,456 metres) at Mount Tidirhine.

  The Atlas Mountains comprise three distinct chains. The High Atlas (Haut Atlas (High Atlas)), 460 miles (740 km) long, begins as small hills at the edge of the Atlantic, rises rapidly to more than 6,500 feet (2,000 metres), and reaches 13,665 feet (4,165 metres) at Mount Toubkal (Toubkal, Mount), Morocco's highest point. The Middle Atlas (Moyen Atlas (Middle Atlas)) trends away from the High Atlas in a northerly direction, rising to 10,958 feet (3,340 metres) at its crest. The Anti-Atlas extends southwestward from the High Atlas to the Atlantic.

      East of the Rif and Atlas ranges is the Moulouya basin, a semiarid lowland created by the eroding force of the Moulouya River. Farther east are the High Plateaus (Hauts Plateaux) of eastern Morocco, which lie roughly between 3,900 and 4,250 feet (1,200 and 1,300 metres) in elevation and are extensions of landforms in neighbouring Algeria. The arid regions to the south and southeast of the Atlas constitute the northwestern limit of the Sahara, whereas a narrow transitional band at the base of the mountains is called the pre-Sahara.

      Atlantic Morocco consists of plains formed of relatively fine sediments and plateaus of coarser deposits. The Sebou River basin, which lies in the northwest between the Rif Mountains and a line running roughly from Rabat to Fès, is a large alluvial plain. Its agricultural heart is known as the Gharb plain (Gharb). South of the Rabat-Fès line, between the Atlas and the Atlantic Ocean, are a series of high plains known collectively as the Moroccan Plateau. These include the Saïs Plain near Fès and Meknès, the Tadla Plain to the northeast of Marrakech, the Haouz Plain west of Marrakech, and the broad Chaouïa, Doukkala, and Abda plains south of Casablanca. Between the High Atlas and Anti-Atlas ranges is the Sous River valley. Morocco's coastline is regular and has few natural harbours. Before modern ports were constructed, sandbars and rocky reefs offshore made navigation difficult.

Drainage

      Morocco's mountains capture significant amounts of rain and snow on their windward slopes from storms coming in off the North Atlantic and give rise to numerous perennial watercourses. Indeed, the country has the most extensive stream network in North Africa. Most streams arise either on the western slopes of the Atlas Mountains or on the southern slopes of the Rif Mountains and flow westward to the Atlantic Ocean. The Sebou (Sebou River) is some 280 miles (450 km) long and has the largest volume of any Moroccan river. With its tributaries, the Sebou accounts for almost half of Morocco's surface water resources. The Oum el-Rbia (Oum er-Rbia River) is Morocco's longest river, approximately 345 miles (555 km) in length. The Moulouya (Moulouya River) is the only major river flowing to the Mediterranean Sea; it originates on the eastern slopes of the Middle Atlas and flows about 320 miles (515 km) to its mouth, which lies near the Algerian frontier. The northern slopes of the Rif are drained by several short streams that also empty into the Mediterranean. Several minor streams originate on the dry eastern slopes of the High Atlas and flow into the Sahara: the Guir, the Rheris, the Ziz, the Dadès, and the Drâa. Although their volume is small, they have cut deep gorges. Since the 1930s Morocco's streams have progressively been dammed for irrigation, hydroelectricity, and flood control.

Soils

      A dark clay-marl soil known as tirs, which is found on the Chaouïa, Doukkala, and Abda plains, produces good yields of wheat and barley when precipitation is sufficient and can retain enough moisture to support summer pasture. Hamri, a light reddish siliceous soil found throughout the Saïs Plain surrounding Meknès and Fès, supports productive vineyards and can also produce good cereal yields, though it has poor moisture retention. Dhess is the main soil type of the Sebou basin. A silt-rich alluvial soil, it provides the foundation for much of Morocco's modern irrigated agriculture. Other major soil types, less suitable for agriculture, are rmel, a sandy soil found in the Mamora Forest region east of Rabat and along much of the northern coast, and haroucha, a rocky soil found throughout Morocco's semiarid regions.

Climate

      Most of Morocco north of the Western Sahara, particularly along the coasts, experiences a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild wet winters and hot dry summers. The rainy season generally extends from October to April. Torrential downpours occasionally produce devastating floods, but overall several factors act to reduce the country's rainfall. Morocco is on the southern margins of the mid-latitude tract of frontal storm systems that regularly traverse the North Atlantic. As a result, rainfall levels are relatively low and gradually decrease from north to south. High-pressure ridges, moreover, periodically develop offshore during the rainy season, shifting storms to the north. Drought results when these ridges persist for extended periods. The cold Canary Current off the western shores also induces atmospheric stability and further decreases the potential for precipitation.

      In the broad coastal lowlands, average annual precipitation diminishes progressively from about 32 inches (800 mm) on the northern Gharb plain to less than 8 inches (200 mm) in the Sous valley. Farther south, beyond the Anti-Atlas, semiarid conditions quickly fade into desert. Elevation strongly influences this prevailing pattern, however, with significantly greater amounts of precipitation occurring in the mountains. The central Rif, for example, receives more than 80 inches (2,030 mm) of precipitation annually, and even the High Atlas, much farther south, receives some 30 inches (760 mm). Snow is common at approximately 6,500 feet (2,000 metres), and the snowpack lingers in the highest elevations until late spring or early summer. Morocco's mountains create a significant rain shadow, directly east of the mountains, where in the lee of the prevailing winds, desert conditions begin abruptly.

      In the lowlands near the coast, summer heat is reduced by cool onshore breezes. Average daily summer temperatures in the coastal cities range from 64 to 82 °F (18 to 28 °C). In the interior, however, daily highs frequently exceed 95 °F (35 °C). In late spring or summer, the sharqī (chergui)—a hot, dusty wind from the Sahara—can sweep over the mountains into the lowlands, even penetrating the coastal cities. Temperatures rise dramatically, often reaching 105 °F (41 °C). If crops have not been harvested, damage can be extensive from the desiccating effects of the sharqī. In winter, the marine influence again moderates temperatures in the coastal regions. Average daily winter temperatures range from 46 to 63 °F (8 to 17 °C). Away from the coast, temperatures drop significantly, occasionally dipping below the freezing point.

Plant and animal life

      Outside the desert areas, the vegetation of Morocco resembles that of the Iberian Peninsula. Extensive forests are still found in the more humid mountainous areas, with cork oak, evergreen oak, and deciduous oak on the lower slopes and fir and cedar at higher elevations, particularly in the Middle Atlas. In drier mountain areas open forests of thuja, juniper, and Aleppo (Pinus halepensis) and maritime pine are common. East of Rabat is the extensive cork oak Mamora Forest. Eucalyptus, originally from Australia, was introduced by French authorities during the colonial period for reforestation. Since independence, the Moroccan government has established several large plantations of this tree surrounding the Mamora Forest. In the rugged highlands south of Essaouira, vast open forests of argan (Argania spinoza) are found. Unique to southwestern Morocco, this tree has a hard fruit that produces a prized cooking oil.

      In Morocco, as is common throughout the western Mediterranean region, centuries of human activity have considerably altered the natural vegetation. On many lower mountain slopes, cutting, grazing, and burning the original vegetation have produced an often dense cover of maquis, or scrub growth, characterized by various associations of wild olive, mastic tree, kermes oak (Quercus coccinea), arbutus, heather, myrtle, artemisia, cytisus (Medicago arborea), broom, and rosemary. In the arid interior plains, the dwarf palm, jujube tree, esparto grass, and Barbary fig (introduced from the Americas by way of Spain in the 16th century) cover vast areas. There is little natural vegetation in the desert areas east of the mountains, although the date palm, introduced to Morocco at a very early period, is extensively cultivated in the desert oases.

      Large game has been progressively eliminated in Morocco since Roman times, when lions and elephants were still abundant. Both have long since disappeared. Gazelles are still seen occasionally in the south, as are mouflons (wild sheep) and fennecs (a type of fox) in the Atlas region. With government protection, the Barbary macaque now flourishes in the forests of the Middle Atlas. However, the richest fauna in Morocco today is the bird life. Large migratory birds that sojourn in Morocco include the stork, which picturesquely builds its nests on city ramparts and mosque rooftops, and the flamingo, pelican, and cattle egret.

People (Morocco)

Ethnic groups

      Morocco is composed mainly of Arabs (Arab) and Imazighen (Berber) or an admixture of the two. Sizable numbers of Imazighen live mainly in the country's mountainous regions—long areas of refuge for them where they can preserve their language and culture.

      Some segments of the population are descendants of refugees from Spain who fled from the Reconquista, the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century.

      Trade and slavery brought a significant population of sub-Saharan Africans to Morocco; their descendants now live chiefly in the southern oases and in the larger cities. Jews (Jew) constituted a fairly large minority until recently, when, in the aftermath of the foundation of Israel and the start of the Arab-Israeli conflict, many Jews felt compelled to leave the country—most emigrated to Israel, Europe, and South and North America.

Languages

      Arabic (Arabic language), the national and official language of Morocco, is spoken by two-thirds of the population, and Modern Standard Arabic is taught in schools. The Amazigh language, known as Tamazight, spoken by roughly one-third of the people, has been preserved in Amazigh enclaves. Many Imazighen also speak Arabic, and Tamazight is taught in schools.

      French is an important secondary language, and Spanish is widely spoken. English is increasingly used as well.

      Tamazight-speaking inhabitants are divided into three ethnolinguistic groups: the Rif people (also called Riffi, or Riffians) of the Rif Mountains, the people of the Middle Atlas, and the people of the High Atlas and the Sous valley. While there are differences among these dialects, they are mutually comprehensible.

Religion

      Islam is the official state religion, and the vast majority of Moroccans are Sunni Muslims of the Mālikī (Mālikīyah) rite. The royal house, the ʿAlawite dynasty, has ruled since the 17th century basing its claim to legitimacy on descent from the Prophet Muhammad. The royal family is revered by Moroccan Muslims because of its prophetic lineage. As in many Islamic countries, Sufism claims adherents, and forms of popular religion—including the veneration of saints and the visitation of tombs—are widely practiced. Moroccan law mandates freedom of religion, but few non-Muslims reside in the country. The country has no indigenous Christian population to speak of, and its Jewish community has dwindled to a few thousand.

Settlement patterns

Traditional regions

      Settlement patterns in Morocco correspond loosely to the three major environmental zones: the coastal plains and plateaus, the highland areas of the Rif and Atlas mountains, and the desert east and south of the Atlas.

      The coastal plains and plateaus contain three-fourths of the country's population and include most of its cities and virtually all of its modern commercial agriculture. It has been the home of settled farmers and seminomadic tribes for centuries. The main form of agriculture is rain-fed cereal production, with wheat and barley as the main winter crops. This is supplemented by stock raising and summer gardens producing pulses (legumes) and fresh vegetables.

      The highland areas of the Rif and the Atlas contain about a fifth of the population and serve as centres of Amazigh culture. Traditional villages are built for defense and are commonly perched on hillsides or hilltops. Dwellings, often multistoried, are tightly clustered and are built of stone, adobe, or tamped earth. Level land is rare, and terraces are constructed to create arable fields along the nearby valley walls. The main subsistence crops are barley as a winter crop and corn (maize) and fresh vegetables as summer crops. Many villages specialize in cash cropping of nuts or fruits—such as olives, almonds, walnuts, figs, apples, cherries, apricots, or plums—that are well-adapted to a local microclimate. Raising of sheep or goats often supplements village agriculture. Some groups practice transhumance, migrating with their flocks or herds to summer pastures at higher elevations or winter pastures at lower elevations and living in dark-coloured tents (khaymahs) woven of goat hair.

      The pre-Saharan and Saharan areas south of the Atlas contain a tiny proportion of Morocco's population. Some settlements are made up of ḥarātīn (Ḥarāṭīn), the descendants of sub-Saharan Africans, and many groups speak one of the Tamazight dialects.Virtually all settlement is in oases (oasis), most of which are created artificially either by diverting water from streams or by importing water from mountains—often over some distance—via underground tunnels ( qanāts). Dates are the main crop, grown as both a subsistence and a cash crop. Alfalfa, corn, wheat, barley, vegetables, and other crops are grown in the date-palm understory. Much settlement in this region is in highly distinctive, fortified adobe villages known as ksour (Arabic: quṣūr, “castles”). Nomadic camel herding was once an important economic activity in the Saharan zone, but government policies, desert warfare, multiyear droughts, and other extenuating factors have caused this way of life to disappear almost completely.

Urban settlement

      More than half the Moroccan population now lives in urban areas. Most Moroccan cities retain at least some of their traditional character and charm. During the period of the French protectorate, colonial authorities did not tamper with the traditional urban centres, or medinas (madīnahs), which were usually surrounded by walls. Rather than modifying these traditional centres to accommodate new infrastructure for administration and economic development, they established villes nouvelles (“new towns”) alongside them. In addition, they shifted the focus of political and economic life from the interior of Morocco—where it had long revolved around the imperial cities of Fès, Meknès, and Marrakech—to the Atlantic coast. Under the protectorate, Casablanca was transformed from a small coastal village into a bustling metropolis. Rabat became the capital and centre of administration. By the 1930s, bidonvilles (literally, “tin can cities”), or shantytowns, were beginning to develop around major urban areas and have since become extensive.

Demographic trends

      Morocco's population is growing at a slightly faster rate than that of countries outside Africa, but it is well below the average for those in the Middle East and North Africa. Nonetheless, Morocco has a large population for its size that is highly concentrated in the most habitable areas. About one-third of the population is under age 15. For some time the opportunity to emigrate (human migration) to western European countries offered a partial solution to Morocco's population pressure, and by the early 1980s some 600,000 Moroccan workers and merchants had established themselves in western Europe. Morocco's population problem was only marginally relieved by migration to the labour markets in the Persian Gulf region during the oil boom that began in the late 20th century.

Economy

      As is true in many former African colonies, the Moroccan economy remains heavily dependent on the export of raw materials. Also of growing importance to the economy are modern sectors, particularly tourism and telecommunications. Altogether, the modern portion accounts for more than two-thirds of gross domestic product (GDP), even though it employs only about one-third of the country's workforce.

      Since the mid-1980s the Moroccan government has undertaken a vigorous program of privatization and economic reform, encouraged by major international lenders such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Measures have included selling state-owned enterprises, devaluing the currency, and changing pricing policies to encourage local production. In 1999 the Moroccan government set up a loan fund to stimulate growth and competition among small businesses. Morocco's sandy beaches, sunshine, diverse environments, and rich cultural heritage give it outstanding potential for tourism, which the government has been actively developing.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

      Morocco is endowed with numerous exploitable resources. With approximately 33,000 square miles (85,000 square km) of arable land (one-seventh of which can be irrigated) and its generally temperate Mediterranean climate, Morocco's agricultural potential is matched by few other Arab or African countries. It is one of the few Arab countries that has the potential to achieve self-sufficiency in food production. In a normal year Morocco produces two-thirds of the grains (chiefly wheat, barley, and corn [maize]) needed for domestic consumption. The country exports citrus fruits and early vegetables to the European market; its wine industry is developed, and production of commercial crops (cotton, sugarcane, sugar beets, and sunflowers) is expanding. Newer crops such as tea, tobacco, and soybeans have passed the experimental stage, the fertile Gharb plain being favourable for their cultivation. The country is actively developing its irrigation potential that ultimately will irrigate more than 2.5 million acres (1 million hectares).

      Nevertheless, the danger of drought is ever present. Especially at risk are the cereal-growing lowlands, which are subject to considerable variation in annual precipitation. On average, drought occurs in Morocco every third year, creating a volatility in agricultural production that is the main constraint on expansion in the sector.

      Livestock raising, particularly sheep and cattle, is widespread. Morocco fills its own meat requirements and is also attempting to become self-sufficient in dairy products.

      Morocco's forests, which cover about one-tenth of its total land area (excluding Western Sahara), have substantial commercial value. Morocco satisfies much of its timber needs by harvesting the high-elevation forests in the Middle and High Atlas. Its Eucalyptus plantations enable it to be self-sufficient in charcoal, which is used extensively for cooking fuel. Eucalyptus also provides the raw material needed for the country's paper and cellulose industries. Paper pulp is a valuable export as is cork from the country's plentiful cork oak forests.

      The fishing grounds in the Canary Current off Morocco's west coast are exceptionally rich in sardines, bonito, and tuna, but the country lacks the modern fleets and processing facilities to benefit fully from these marine resources. An important part of a major trade agreement Morocco concluded with the European Union (EU) in 1996 concerned fishing rights, by which the EU pays Morocco an annual fee to allow vessels (mainly Spanish) to fish Moroccan waters.

Resources and power

      With its acquisition of Western Sahara, Morocco came to possess some two-thirds of the world's reserves of phosphates (phosphate mineral), used for the manufacture of fertilizers and other products. Low world prices for phosphates, however, have hindered production. Other minerals include iron ore and coal, mined for Morocco's domestic use, and barite, manganese, lead, and zinc, which are exported in small quantities.

      A major weakness in Morocco's resource inventory is its shortage of domestic energy sources. Oil exploration has been disappointing, although the country possesses some natural gas reserves that have been exploited. Its hydroelectric potential is considerable and now being tapped. Morocco must cover the bulk of its growing energy needs through imports, principally crude petroleum, which is refined domestically. Thermal power plants produce much of the country's electricity.

Manufacturing

      Manufacturing accounts for about one-sixth of GDP and is steadily growing in importance in the economy. Two particularly important components of the country's industrial makeup are processing raw materials for export and manufacturing consumer goods for the domestic market. Many operations date to the colonial period. Until the early 1980s, government involvement was dominant and the major focus was on import substitution. Since then the emphasis has shifted to privatizing state operations and attracting new private investment, including foreign sources. Processing phosphate ore into fertilizers and phosphoric acid for export is a major economic activity. Food processing for export (canning fish, fresh vegetables, and fruit) as well as for domestic needs (flour milling and sugar refining) is also important, and the manufacture of textiles and clothes using domestically produced cotton and wool is a major source of foreign exchange. Morocco's iron and steel manufacturing industry is small but provides a significant share of the country's domestic needs.

Finance

      Morocco's central bank, the Bank al-Maghrib, plays a preeminent role in the country's banking system. It issues the Moroccan dirham, maintains Morocco's foreign currency reserves, controls the credit supply, oversees the government's specialized lending organizations, and regulates the commercial banking industry. Privatization has stimulated activity on the Casablanca Stock Exchange (Bourse de Casablanca—founded in 1929—is one of the oldest exchanges in Africa), notably trade in shares of large former state-owned operations.

Trade

      Government attempts to increase exports and control imports have had some success, and a chronic annual trade deficit has begun to narrow. By the 1990s Morocco had also significantly lowered its foreign debt. The three leading exports are agricultural produce (citrus fruits and market vegetables), semiprocessed goods and consumer goods (including textiles), and phosphates and phosphate products. Major imports are semimanufactures and industrial equipment, crude oil, and food commodities. Morocco's largest trading partner is the EU (European Union). Because Morocco's trade with Europe has been so significant, an important development of the 1990s was negotiating a formal association with the EU, including an agreement to create, over time, a Euro-Mediterranean free trade zone. Other trade accords have also been negotiated to mitigate the dependence on Europe, including an agreement with North American Free Trade Agreement countries and bilateral arrangements with other countries in the Middle East and North Africa. In 2004 a Free Trade Agreement was signed with the United States.

Services

      Services, including government and military expenditures, account for about one-fourth of Morocco's GDP. Government spending alone, despite an ongoing effort on the part of the government to sell much of its assets to private concerns, accounts for fully half of the service economy. Since the mid-1980s tourism and associated services have been an increasingly significant sector of the Moroccan economy and by the late 1990s had become the country's largest source of foreign currency. During that time the Moroccan government committed significant resources—by way of loans and tax exemptions—to the development of the tourist industry and associated services. The government also made direct capital investments in the development of the service sector, but since the early 1990s it has begun to divest itself of these properties. Several million visitors enter Morocco yearly, most of them from Europe. Tourists also arrive from Algeria, the United States, and East Asia, mainly Japan.

Labour and taxation

      Roughly one-third of the population is employed in agriculture, another one-third make their living in mining, manufacturing, and construction, and the remainder are occupied in the trade, finance, and service sectors. Not included in these estimates is a large informal economy of street vendors, domestic workers, and other underemployed and poorly paid individuals. High unemployment is a problem; the official figure is roughly one-fifth of the workforce, but unofficial estimates are much higher, and—in a pattern typical of most Middle Eastern and North African countries—unemployment among university graduates holding nontechnical degrees is especially high. Several trade unions exist in the country; the largest of these, with nearly 700,000 members, is L'Union Marocaine du Travail, which is affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions.

      Tax revenues provide the largest part of the general budget. Taxes are levied on individuals, corporations, goods and services, and tobacco and petroleum products.

Transportation and telecommunications

      Morocco's road network effectively integrates the country's diverse regions. Established during the colonial period, the network has been well maintained and gradually expanded since. The railway system connects the principal urban centres of the north, and new rail links, together with improved roads, are being established to El-Aaiún (Laâyoune) in Western Sahara. Morocco has some two dozen ports along its lengthy coastline. Casablanca alone accounts for about half of all port tonnage handled, although port facilities in Tangier are of increasing significance. Other major ports include Safi, Mohammedia, Agadir, Nador, Kenitra, and El Jorf Lasfar. About a dozen airports capable of accommodating large aircraft service the country; the principal international airport is located near Casablanca. The state-owned Royal Air Maroc (RAM) airline provides regular service to Europe, North America, the Middle East, and western Africa.

      In the late 1980s and early '90s the government undertook a major expansion and modernization of the telecommunications system. This nearly quadrupled the number of internal telephone lines and greatly improved international communications. In 1996 the state-owned telecommunications industry was opened up to privatization by a new law that allowed private investment in the retail sector, while the state retained control of fixed assets. In 1998 the government created Maroc Telecom (Ittiṣālāt al-Maghrib), which provides telephone, cellular, and Internet service for the country. Satellite dishes are found on the roofs of houses in even the poorest neighbourhoods, suggesting that Moroccans at every social and economic level have access to the global telecommunications network. The Internet has made steady inroads in Morocco; major institutions have direct access to it, while private individuals can connect via telecommunications “boutiques,” a version of the cyber cafés found in many Western countries, and through home computers.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

      According to the constitution promulgated in 1996, political power in Morocco is to be shared between the hereditary monarch and an elected bicameral Parliament, consisting of a House of Councillors (Majlis al-Mustashārīn; upper chamber) and House of Representatives (Majlis al-Nawāb; lower chamber). A prime minister heads the cabinet, which constitutes the executive.

      Despite the existence of a constitution, legislature, and a number of active political parties, however, the king continues to wield ultimate political authority: he promulgates legislation, appoints and dismisses ministers—including the prime minister—and can dissolve parliament at any time and rule by decree. The overwhelming authority of the monarch in political life has been a subject of intense debate and criticism, and since the mid-1990s, political reforms to strengthen representative institutions, enhance the authority of the parliament and cabinet, increase political participation, and limit the king's ability to manipulate political affairs have been enacted under pressure both from internal opposition groups and from groups outside the country.

Local government

      At the local level, Morocco is subdivided into multiple levels of government, all directly under the Ministry of the Interior. At the top are 16 regions, which are further divided into several dozen provinces and urban prefectures, each ruled by a governor appointed by the king. Beneath this second-order subdivision are rural qaḍawāt (districts) and municipalities, governed by chefs de cercle. The fourth level comprises rural communes and autonomous urban centres, governed respectively by qāʾids (caids) and pashas. Lower-order officials are appointed either by the Ministry of the Interior or by the governors. Each level has popularly elected bodies whose primary function is to help determine local matters and priorities, such as initiating development projects and deciding budget expenditures. At the end of the 1990s, government policy was moving toward allowing greater decision making at the local level.

Justice

      In theory, the Qurʾān is still the source of law. It is, in effect, exercised by the qāḍī (qadi)s (Muslim religious judges) and is limited to matters relating to the personal status of Muslims. Rabbinical justice applies to Jews. All other matters, whether they concern Muslims, Jews, or others, are in the hands of secular courts that apply a French-inspired legal code. The highest legal authority is the Supreme Court, which supervises a legal system consisting of courts of appeal, regional tribunals, magistrates' courts, and, at the lowest level, courts of first instance. All judges receive appointments from the king and are supervised by the Ministry of Justice. The legal system, however, has not been immune to pressures for reform. Moroccan women, in particular, have sought reforms in the Mudawwanah, or code of personal status and family law, in an effort to change inequities in inheritance, divorce, and other matters that have traditionally favoured men. In 2004 parliament issued a new, more liberal, personal status code.

Political process

      Members of the new 270-member House of Councillors are chosen for nine-year terms by local councils, trade unions, and professional associations. All 325 members of the House of Representatives are directly elected to five-year terms by popular vote. The constitution prohibits a one-party system, and many parties exist. Legislative elections held in 1997 marked a significant change in Moroccan politics: a Democratic Bloc comprising a coalition of socialist, nationalist, and left-wing parties won a plurality of seats, producing the first government by a former opposition group in years and introducing a new element of dynamism into a stagnated political system. The National Entente, comprising three parties formerly in the government, became the largest opposition party.

      The Ministry of the Interior retains considerable power, as do the security forces. Islamist groups have remained active on the political front, presenting an ongoing challenge to the regime. Some of the more moderate factions were politically co-opted when their representatives were elected to the 1997 parliament, but extremist groups have retained a significant power base within the universities and among unemployed young people and have occasionally resorted to violence.

      Although all citizens are franchised and have equal rights with respect to education, employment, private property, and the right to strike, in reality differences abound, especially with regard to women. There are few women involved in the legislative or ministerial levels of government. King Muḥammad VI has attempted to rectify this situation, however, by appointing women as department heads and as royal counselors.

Security

      Military service lasts for 18 months in Morocco, and the country's reserve obligation lasts until age 50. The country's military consists of the Royal Armed Forces—this includes the army (the largest branch) and a small navy and air force—the National Police Force, the Royal Gendarmerie (mainly responsible for rural security), and the Auxiliary Forces. Internal security is generally effective, and acts of political violence are rare (one exception, a terrorist bombing in May 2003 in Casablanca, killed scores). The UN maintains a small observer force in Western Sahara, where a large number of Morocco's troops are stationed. The Saharawi group Polisario (Polisario Front) maintains an active militia of an estimated 5,000 fighters in Western Sahara and has engaged in intermittent warfare with Moroccan forces since the 1980s.

Health and welfare

      Morocco has a relatively favourable ratio of physicians and other trained medical personnel to population. The government has emphasized preventive medicine by increasing the number of dispensaries and health centres. More than half of the rural population, however, still lacks access to these facilities. In addition, only a small portion of the rural population and not all of the urban population have access to safe drinking water. Infant mortality rates remain high, and at least one-third of the population experiences malnutrition. Diseases such as hepatitis remain prevalent, and disorders such as schistosomiasis are becoming more frequent with the expansion of irrigation.

Housing

      Housing in Morocco ranges from the traditional to the ultramodern. In rural areas, some Moroccans still reside in ksour and agricultural villages. Living conditions in these places remain severe. Despite efforts by the government and some private groups to renovate and modernize the traditional medinas, access to public utilities in numerous city centres likewise remains limited. For many years the government tried to discourage the development of bidonvilles and other spontaneous settlements. More recently, however, it has provided these communities with electricity, piped water, and other facilities and encouraged residents to improve their structures. The government, along with private developers, has also promoted the construction of new housing units throughout the country, but these are largely inhabited by the middle class. “Clandestine” or illegal housing of a more permanent nature has grown up on the urban periphery. The government is seeking ways to regularize this type of housing by bringing it up to an acceptable standard and by providing it with basic services, albeit after construction has occurred.

Education

      Morocco allocates approximately one-fifth of its budget to education. Much of this is spent on building schools to accommodate the rapidly growing population. Education is mandatory for children between the ages of 7 and 13 years. In urban areas the majority of children in this age group attend school, though on a national scale the level of participation drops significantly. About three-fourths of school-age males attend school, but only about half of school-age girls; these proportions drop markedly in rural areas. Slightly more than half of the children go on to secondary education, including trade and technical schools. Of these, few seek higher education. Poor school attendance, particularly in rural areas, has meant a low rate of literacy, which is about two-fifths of the population.

      Morocco has more than four dozen universities, institutes of higher learning, and polytechnics dispersed at urban centres throughout the country. Its leading institutions include Muḥammad V University in Rabat, the country's largest university, with branches in Casablanca and Fès; the Hassan II Agriculture and Veterinary Institute in Rabat, which conducts leading social science research in addition to its agricultural specialties; and Al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane, the first private English-language university in North Africa, inaugurated in 1995 with contributions from Saudi Arabia and the United States.

Cultural life

Cultural milieu

      The area that is now Morocco has long been a crossroads between Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East, and diverse cultural and ethnic groups have migrated through the region and left their mark on it. Beginning in the 8th century, indigenous Amazigh culture was met with waves of Arab conquerors and travelers who brought with them the Islamic faith and the powerful influence of Arabic language and culture. The arrival of numerous Jewish and Muslim refugees from the Spanish Reconquista beginning in the 16th century left Moroccan culture with a lasting Andalusian quality, and starting in the 19th century, the influence of French culture began to grow—alongside French political power—in all parts of North Africa. French culture—along with the persistence of the French language—has continued to exert a strong influence on Morocco. Some Moroccans have also renewed their interest in Amazigh culture, and civic associations have been formed to encourage the study of Tamazight literature and oral traditions.

Daily life and social customs

      Social life for most Moroccans still centres on home and family. The sidewalk café is a favourite gathering place for men, and watching a football (soccer) match on television in the local café is a popular form of entertainment. Big cities such as Casablanca boast a variety of diversions, including cinemas, restaurants, and shopping in modern boutiques or in the souk, the open-air market in which vendors sell a wide array of local arts and crafts items alongside foods and imported commodities. Morocco's extensive coastline has numerous fine beaches, some of them private and off-limits but many of them open to the public and within easy reach of the city. On weekends families often spend the day at the shore, swimming, picnicking, and playing sports.

      Moroccan cuisine has gained a following among connoisseurs worldwide, and the country's rich agricultural regions provide ample products for Moroccan kitchens. Meat staples include fish, lamb, and fowl—including pigeon, which is considered a delicacy when baked in pastry, the b'stillah, a national favourite. Tomatoes, peppers, onions, and eggplants are among the numerous vegetables typically used in dishes, and fruits of all varieties are enjoyed. Bread is, as in all countries of the Middle East and North Africa, a deep cultural symbol as well as a daily staple. The premier Moroccan food, however, is couscous, a semolina-based pasta served with a meat stew. Kabobs of various types are common, as are salads and soups. Harira, a thick and hearty lamb soup, is served to break the fast at Ramadan and is a national speciality. The national drink is mint tea. Morocco is a wine-producing country, but production had begun to decline by the early 21st century under religious pressure that viewed alcohol consumption as inappropriate.

      Moroccans observe a number of secular and religious holidays. Islamic holidays include the two ʿīds, Īd al-Fiṭrʿ and Īd al-Aḍḥāʿ, and the Prophet's birthday; national holidays include Independence Day and the king's birthday.

The arts

      The production of Moroccan literature has continued to grow and diversify. To the traditional genres—poetry, essays, and historiography—have been added forms inspired by Middle Eastern and Western literary models. French is often used in publishing research in the social and natural sciences, and in the fields of literature and literary studies, works are published in both Arabic and French. Moroccan writers, such as Mohammed Choukri, Driss Chraïbi (Chraïbi, Driss), Abdallah Laroui, Abdelfattah Kilito, and Fatima Mernissi, publish their works in both French and English. Expatriate writers such as Pierre Loti (Loti, Pierre), William S. Burroughs (Burroughs, William S.), and Paul Bowles (Bowles, Paul) have drawn attention to Moroccan writers as well as to the country itself.

      Since independence a veritable blossoming has taken place in painting and sculpture, popular music, amateur theatre, and filmmaking. The Moroccan National Theatre (founded 1956) offers regular productions of Moroccan and French dramatic works. Art and music festivals take place throughout the country during the summer months, among them the World Sacred Music Festival at Fès.

      Moroccan music, influenced by Arab, Amazigh, African, and Spanish traditions, makes use of a number of traditional instruments, such as the flute (nāy), shawm (ghaita), zither (qanūn), and various short necked lutes (including the ʿūd and gimbrī). These are often backed by explosive percussion on the darbūkka (terra-cotta drum). Among the most popular traditional Moroccan artists internationally are the Master Musicians of Jajouka, an all-male guild trained from childhood, and Hassan Hakmoun, a master of gnāwa trance music, a popular spiritual style that traces its roots to sub-Saharan Africa. Younger Moroccans enjoy raï, a style of plain-speaking Algerian music that incorporates traditional sounds with those of Western rock, Jamaican reggae, and Egyptian and Moroccan popular music.

Cultural institutions

      Morocco has a number of fine museums situated throughout the country. The Batha Museum, located in Fès and housed in a former 19th-century royal residence, specializes in historical Moroccan art and has an excellent collection of native ceramics. The Oudaïa Museum (founded 1915; also known as the Museum of Moroccan Art) is located near Rabat's Oudaïa Casbah. Originally constructed as a private residence in the 17th century, the museum has collections of premodern Moroccan arts and crafts, as does the Dar El-Jamaï Museum (1920), which is located in Meknès. Rabat's Archaeological Museum (1931) has a comprehensive collection covering the entirety of Morocco's history. Morocco is also home to a number of learned societies, research institutes, and archives.

Sports and recreation

      Spectator sports in Morocco traditionally centred on the art of horsemanship until European sports—football (soccer), polo, swimming, and tennis—were introduced at the end of the 19th century. Football is the country's premier sport, popular among the urban youth in particular, and in 1970 Morocco became the first African country to play in World Cup competition. At the 1984 Olympic Games, two Moroccans won gold medals in track and field events, one of whom—Nawal El Moutawakel in the 400 metre hurdles—was the first woman from an Arab or Islamic country to win an Olympic gold medal. Tennis and golf have also become popular. Several Moroccan professional players have competed in international competition, and the country fielded its first Davis Cup team in 1999.

Media and publishing

      Morocco's government-owned radio and television network, Radiodiffusion Télévision Marocaine (RTM), broadcasts throughout the country. Radio broadcasts are in Arabic, French, Tamazight, Spanish, and English, while television is broadcast in Arabic, Tamazight, and French. In addition, a private television network is headquartered in Casablanca and a private radio network in Tangier.

      There are about a dozen daily newspapers in Morocco, published in Rabat, Casablanca, and Tangier and written in both French and Arabic. Most are organs of political parties, whereas the remainder are owned by or sympathetic to the government. In addition, a rich variety of periodicals represent various professions, trades, intellectual interests, and avocations. The high rate of illiteracy, however, keeps readership low and makes television the primary medium for disseminating news and information.

Abdallah Laroui Will D. Swearingen Susan Gilson Miller

History

      This discussion focuses on Morocco since the 16th century. For a more detailed treatment of earlier periods and of the country in its regional context, see North Africa.

      Situated in the northwest corner of Africa and, on a clear day, visible from the Spanish coast, Morocco has resisted outside invasion while serving as a meeting point for European, Eastern, and African civilizations throughout history. Its early inhabitants were Tamazight-speaking nomads; many of these became followers of Christianity and Judaism, which were introduced during a brief period of Roman rule. In the late 7th century, Arab invaders from the East brought Islam, which local Imazighen gradually assimilated. Sunni (Sunnite) Islam triumphed over various sectarian tendencies in the 12th and 13th centuries under the doctrinally rigorous Almohad (Almohads) dynasty. The Christian reconquest of Spain in the later Middle Ages brought waves of Muslim and Jewish exiles from Spain to Morocco, injecting a Hispanic flavour into Moroccan urban life. Apart from some isolated coastal enclaves, however, Europeans failed to establish a permanent foothold in the area. In the 16th century, Ottoman (Ottoman Empire) invaders from Algeria attempted to add Morocco to their empire, thus threatening the country's independence. They, too, were thwarted, leaving Morocco virtually the only Arab country never to experience Ottoman rule. In 1578, three kings fought and died near Ksar el-Kebir (Alcazarquivir), including the Portuguese monarch Sebastian. This decisive battle, known as the Battle of the Three Kings (Three Kings, Battle of the), was claimed as a Moroccan victory and put an end to European incursions onto Moroccan soil for three centuries. The 17th century saw the rise of the ʿAlawite dynasty of sharifs, who still rule Morocco today. This dynasty fostered trade and cultural relations with sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and the Arab lands, though religious tensions between Islam and Christendom often threatened the peace.

      By the late 17th century, Morocco's cultural and political identity as an Islamic monarchy was firmly established. The figure of the strong sultan was personified by Mawlāy Ismāʿīl (1672–1727), who used a slave army, known as the Abīd al-Bukhārīʿ, to subdue all parts of the country and establish centralized rule. Subsequent monarchs often used their prestige as religious leaders to contain internal conflicts caused by competition among tribes. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when Europe was preoccupied with revolution and continental war, Morocco withdrew into a period of isolation. On the eve of the modern era, despite their geographic proximity, Moroccans and Europeans knew little about each other.

Decline of traditional government (1830–1912)

      During the French invasion (colonialism, Western) of Algeria in 1830, the sultan of Morocco, Mawlāy ʿAbd al-Raḥmān (Abd ar-Rahman) (1822–59), briefly sent troops to occupy Tlemcen but withdrew them after French protests. The Algerian leader Abdelkader in 1844 took refuge from the French in Morocco. A Moroccan army was sent to the Algerian frontier; the French bombarded Tangier on August 4, 1844, and Essaouira (Mogador) on August 15. Meanwhile, on August 14, the Moroccan army had been totally defeated at Isly, near the frontier town of Oujda. The sultan then promised to intern or expel Abdelkader if he should again enter Moroccan territory. Two years later, when he was again driven into Morocco, the Algerian leader was attacked by Moroccan troops and was forced to surrender to the French.

      Immediately after ʿAbd al-Raḥmān's death in 1859, a dispute with Spain over the boundaries of the Spanish enclave at Ceuta led Madrid to declare war. Spain captured Tétouan in the following year. Peace had to be bought with an indemnity of $20 million, the enlargement of Ceuta's frontiers, and the promise to cede to Spain another enclave— Ifni.

      The new sultan, Sīdī Muḥammad, attempted with little success to modernize the Moroccan army. Upon his death in 1873, his son Mawlāy Hassan I struggled to preserve independence. Hassan I died in 1894, and his chamberlain, Bā Aḥmad (Aḥmad ibn Mūsā), ruled in the name of the young sultan ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz (Abd al-Aziz) until 1901, when the latter began his direct rule.

      ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz surrounded himself with European companions and adopted their customs, while scandalizing his own subjects, particularly the religious leaders. His attempt to introduce a modern system of land taxation resulted in complete confusion because of a lack of qualified officials. Popular discontent and tribal rebellion became even more common, while a pretender, Bū Ḥmāra (Abū Ḥamārah), established a rival court near Melilla. European powers seized the occasion to extend their own influence. In 1904 Britain gave France a free hand in Morocco in exchange for French noninterference with British plans in Egypt. Spanish agreement was secured by a French promise that northern Morocco should be treated as a sphere of Spanish influence. Italian interests were satisfied by France's decision not to hinder Italian designs on Libya. Once these various interests were settled, the Western powers met with Moroccan representatives at Algeciras, Spain, in 1906, to discuss the country's future.

      The Algeciras Conference confirmed the integrity of the sultan's domains but sanctioned French and Spanish policing Moroccan ports and collecting the customs dues. In 1907–08 the sultan's brother, Mawlāy ʿAbd al-Ḥāfiẓ (Abd al-Hafid), led a rebellion against him from Marrakech, denouncing ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz for his collaboration with the Europeans. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz subsequently fled to distant Tangier. ʿAbd al-Ḥāfiẓ then made an abortive attack on French troops, which had occupied Casablanca in 1907, before proceeding to Fès, where he was duly proclaimed sultan and recognized by the European powers (1909).

      The new sultan proved unable to control the country. Disorder increased until, besieged by tribesmen in Fès, he was forced to ask the French to rescue him. When they had done so, he had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Fez (March 30, 1912), by which Morocco became a French protectorate. In return, the French guaranteed that the status of the sultan and his successors would be maintained. Provision was also made to meet the Spanish claim for a special position in the north of the country; Tangier, long the seat of the diplomatic missions, retained a separate administration.

The French protectorate (1912–56)

      In establishing their protectorate over much of Morocco, the French had behind them the experience of the conquest of Algeria and of their protectorate over Tunisia; they took the latter as the model for their Moroccan policy. There were, however, important differences. First, the protectorate was established only two years before the outbreak of World War I, which brought with it a new attitude toward colonial rule. Second, Morocco had a thousand-year tradition of independence; though it had been strongly influenced by the civilization of Muslim Spain, it had never been subject to Ottoman rule. These circumstances and the proximity of Morocco to Spain created a special relationship between the two countries.

      Morocco was also unique among the North African countries in possessing a coast on the Atlantic, in the rights that various nations derived from the Act of Algeciras, and in the privileges that their diplomatic missions had acquired in Tangier. Thus, the northern tenth of the country, with both Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, together with the desert province of Tarfaya in the southwest adjoining the Spanish Sahara, were excluded from the French-controlled area and treated as a Spanish protectorate. In the French zone, the fiction of the sultan's sovereignty was maintained, but the French-appointed resident general held the real authority and was subject only to the approval of the government in Paris. The sultan worked through newly created departments staffed by French officials. The negligible role that the Moroccan government (makhzan) actually played can be seen by the fact that Muḥammad al-Muqrī, the grand vizier when the protectorate was installed, held the same post when Morocco recovered its independence 44 years later; he was by then more than 100 years old. As in Tunisia, country districts were administered by contrôleurs civils, except in certain areas such as Fès, where it was felt that officers of the rank of general should supervise the administration. In the south certain Amazigh chiefs (qāʾids), of whom the best known was Thami al-Glaoui, were given a great deal of independence.

The pre-World War II period

      The first resident general, General (later Marshal) Louis-Hubert-Gonzalve Lyautey (Lyautey, Louis-Hubert-Gonzalve), was a soldier of wide experience in Indochina, Madagascar, and Algeria. He was of aristocratic outlook and possessed a deep appreciation of Moroccan civilization. The character he gave to the administration exerted an influence throughout the period of the protectorate.

      His idea was to leave the Moroccan elite intact and rule through a policy of cooptation. He placed ʿAbd al-Ḥāfiẓ's more amenable brother, Mawlāy Yūsuf, on the throne. This sultan succeeded in cooperating with the French without losing the respect of the Moroccan people. A new administrative capital was created on the Atlantic coast at Rabat, and a commercial port subsequently was developed at Casablanca. By the end of the protectorate in 1956, Casablanca was a flourishing city, with nearly a million inhabitants and a substantial industrial establishment. Lyautey's plan to build new European cities separate from the old Moroccan towns left the traditional medinas intact. Remarkably, World War I did little to interrupt this rhythm of innovation. Though the French government had proposed retiring to the coast, Lyautey managed to retain control of all the French-occupied territory.

      After the war Morocco faced two major problems. The first was pacifying the outlying areas in the Atlas Mountains, over which the sultan's government often had had no real control; this was finally completed in 1934. The second problem was the spread of the uprising of Abd el-Krim from the Spanish to the French zone (see below World War II and independence: The Spanish Zone (Morocco)), which was quelled by French and Spanish troops in 1926. That same year, Marshal Lyautey was succeeded by a civilian resident general. This marked a change to a more conventional colonial-style administration, accompanied by official colonization, the growth of the European population, and the increasing impact of European thought on the younger generation of Moroccans, some of whom had by then received a French education.

      As early as 1920 Lyautey had submitted a report saying that “a young generation is growing up which is full of life and needs activity. . . . Lacking the outlets which our administration offers only sparingly and in subordinate positions they will find an alternative way out.” Only six years after Lyautey's report, young Moroccans both in Rabat, the new administrative capital, and in Fès, the centre of traditional Arab-Islamic learning and culture, were meeting independently of one another to discuss demands for reforms within the terms of the protectorate treaty. They asked for more schools, a new judicial system, and the abolition of the regime of the Amazigh qāʾids in the south; for study missions in France and the Middle East; and for the cessation of official colonization—objectives that would be fully secured only when the protectorate ended in 1956.

      On the death of Mawlāy Yūsuf (1927) the French chose as his successor his younger son, Sīdī Muḥammad ( Muḥammad V). Selected in part for his retiring disposition, this sultan eventually revealed considerable diplomatic skill and determination. Also significant was the French attempt to use the purported differences between Arabs (Arab) and Imazighen (Berber) to undercut any growing sense of national unity. This led the French to issue the Berber Decree in 1930, which was a crude effort to divide Imazighen and Arabs. The result was just the opposite of French intentions; it provoked a Moroccan nationalist reaction and forced the administration to modify its proposals. In 1933 the nationalists initiated a new national day called the Fête du Trône (Throne Day) to mark the anniversary of the sultan's accession. When he visited Fès the following year, the sultan received a tumultuous welcome, accompanied by anti-French demonstrations that caused the authorities to terminate his visit abruptly. Shortly after this episode political parties were organized that sought greater Moroccan self-rule. These events coincided with the completion of the French occupation of southern Morocco, which paved the way for the Spanish occupation of Ifni. In 1937 rioting occurred in Meknès, where French settlers were suspected of diverting part of the town water supply to irrigate their own lands at the expense of the Muslim cultivators. In the ensuing repression, Muḥammad ʿAllāl al-Fāsī, a prominent nationalist leader, was banished to Gabon in French Equatorial Africa, where he spent the following nine years.

World War II and independence

The French Zone

      At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the sultan issued a call for cooperation with the French, and a large Moroccan contingent (mainly Amazigh) served with distinction in France. The collapse of the French in 1940 followed by the installation of the Vichy (Vichy France) regime produced an entirely new situation. The sultan signified his independence by refusing to approve anti-Jewish legislation. When Anglo-American troop landings took place in 1942, he refused to comply with the suggestion of the resident general, Auguste Noguès, that he retire to the interior. In 1943 the sultan was influenced by his meeting with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (Roosevelt, Franklin D.), who had come to Morocco for the Casablanca Conference and was unsympathetic to continued French presence there. The majority of the people were equally affected by the arrival of U.S. and British troops, who exposed Moroccans to the outside world to an unprecedented degree. In addition, Allied and Axis radio propaganda, which called for Moroccan independence, strongly attracted Arab listeners. Amid these circumstances, the nationalist movement took the new title of Ḥizb al-Istiqlāl (Independence Party). In January 1944 the party submitted to the sultan and the Allied (including the French) authorities a memorandum asking for independence under a constitutional regime. The nationalist leaders, including Aḥmad Balafrej, secretary general of the Istiqlāl, were unjustly accused and arrested for collaborating with the Nazis. This caused rioting in Fès and elsewhere in which some 30 or more demonstrators were killed. As a result, the sultan, who in 1947 persuaded a new and reform-minded resident general, Eirik Labonne, to ask the French government to grant him permission to make an official state visit to Tangier, passing through the Spanish Zone on the way. The journey became a triumphal procession. When the sultan made his speech in Tangier, after his stirring reception in northern Morocco, he emphasized his country's links with the Arab world of the East, omitting the expected flattering reference to the French protectorate.

      Labonne was subsequently replaced by General (later Marshal) Alphonse Juin (Juin, Alphonse), who was of Algerian settler origin. Juin, long experienced in North African affairs, expressed sympathy for the patriotic nationalist sentiments of young Moroccans and promised to comply with their wish for the creation of elected municipalities in the large cities. At the same time, he roused opposition by proposing to introduce French citizens as members of these bodies. The sultan used his one remaining prerogative and refused to countersign the resident general's decrees, without which they had no legal validity. A state visit to France in October 1950 and a flattering reception there did nothing to modify the sultan's views, and on his return to Morocco he received a wildly enthusiastic welcome.

      In December General Juin dismissed a nationalist member from a budget proposal meeting of the Council of Government; consequently, the 10 remaining nationalist members walked out in protest. Juin then contemplated the possibility of using the Amazigh feudal notables, such as Thami al-Glaoui, to counter the nationalists. At a palace reception later in the month al-Glaoui in fact confronted the sultan, calling him not the sultan of the Moroccans but of the Istiqlāl and blaming him for leading the country to catastrophe.

      With Sīdī Muḥammad still refusing to cooperate, Juin surrounded the palace, under the guard of French troops supposedly placed there to protect the sultan from his own people, with local tribesmen. Faced with this threat, Sīdī Muḥammad was forced to disown “a certain political party,” without specifically naming it, though he still withheld his signature from many decrees, including one that admitted French citizens to become municipal councillors. Juin's action was widely criticized in France, which led to his replacement by General Augustin Guillaume in August 1951. On the anniversary of his accession (November 18), the sultan declared his hopes for an agreement “guaranteeing full sovereignty to Morocco” but (as he added in a subsequent letter addressed to the president of the French Republic) “with the continuation of Franco-Moroccan cooperation.” This troubled situation continued until December 1952, when trade unions in Casablanca organized a protest meeting in response to the alleged French terrorist assassination of the Tunisian union leader Ferhat Hached. Subsequently, a clash with the police resulted in the arrest of hundreds of nationalists, who were held for two years without trial.

      In April 1953 ʿAbd al-Ḥayy al-Kattānī, a noted religious scholar and the head of the Kattāniyyah religious brotherhood, and a number of Amazigh notables led by al-Glaoui (along with the connivance of several French officials and settlers) began to work for the deposition of the sultan. The government in Paris, preoccupied with internal affairs, finally demanded that the sultan transfer his legislative powers to a council, consisting of Moroccan ministers and French directors, and append his signature to all blocked legislation. Although the sultan yielded, it was insufficient for his enemies. In August al-Glaoui delivered the equivalent of an ultimatum to the French government, who deported the sultan and his family and appointed in his place the more subservient Mawlāy Ben ʿArafa. These actions failed to remedy the situation, as Sīdī Muḥammad immediately became a national hero. The authorities in the Spanish Zone, who had not been consulted about the measure, did nothing to conceal their disapproval. The Spanish Zone thus became a refuge for Moroccan nationalists.

      In November 1954 the French position was further complicated by the outbreak of the Algerian war for independence, and the following June the Paris government decided on a complete change of policy and appointed Gilbert Grandval as resident general. His efforts at conciliation, obstructed by tacit opposition among many officials and the outspoken hostility of the majority of French settlers, failed. A conference of Moroccan representatives was then summoned to meet in France, where it was agreed that the substitute sultan be replaced with a crown council. Sīdī Muḥammad approved this proposal, but it took weeks to persuade Mawlāy Ben ʿArafa to withdraw to Tangier. Meanwhile, a guerrilla liberation army began to operate against French posts near the Spanish Zone.

      In October al-Glaoui declared publicly that only the restoration of Muḥammad V could restore harmony. The French government agreed to allow the sultan to form a constitutional government for Morocco, and Sīdī Muḥammad returned to Rabat in November; on March 2, 1956, independence was proclaimed. The sultan formed a government that included representation from various elements of the indigenous population, while the governmental departments formerly headed by French officials became ministries headed by Moroccans.

The Spanish Zone

      The Spanish protectorate over northern Morocco extended from Larache (El-Araish) on the Atlantic to 30 miles (48 km) beyond Melilla (already a Spanish possession) on the Mediterranean. The mountainous Tamazight-speaking area had often escaped the sultan's control. Spain also received a strip of desert land in the southwest, known as Tarfaya, adjoining Spanish Sahara. In 1934, when the French occupied southern Morocco, the Spanish took Ifni.

      Spain appointed a khalīfah, or viceroy, chosen from the Moroccan royal family as nominal head of state and provided him with a puppet Moroccan government. This enabled Spain to conduct affairs independently of the French Zone while nominally preserving Moroccan unity. Tangier, though it had a Spanish-speaking population of 40,000, received a special international administration under a mandūb, or a representative of the sultan. Although the mandūb was, in theory, appointed by the sultan, in reality he was chosen by the French. In 1940, after the defeat of France, Spanish troops occupied Tangier, but they withdrew in 1945 after the Allied victory.

      The Spanish Zone surrounded the ports of Ceuta and Melilla, which Spain had held for centuries, and included the iron mines of the Rif Mountains. The Spanish selected Tétouan for their capital. As in the French Zone, European-staffed departments were created, while the rural districts were administered by interventores, corresponding to the French contrôleurs civils. The first area to be occupied was on the plain, facing the Atlantic, that included the towns of Larache, Ksar el-Kebir, and Asilah. That area was the stronghold of the former Moroccan governor Aḥmad al-Raisūnī (Raisūlī), who was half patriot and half brigand. The Spanish government found it difficult to tolerate his independence; in March 1913 al-Raisūnī retired into a refuge in the mountains, where he remained until his capture 12 years later by another Moroccan leader, Abd el-Krim.

      Abd el-Krim was an Amazigh and a good Arabic scholar who had a knowledge of both the Arabic and Spanish languages and ways of life. Imprisoned after World War I for his subversive activities, he later went to Ajdir in the Rif Mountains to plan an uprising. In July 1921 Abd el-Krim destroyed a Spanish force sent against him and subsequently established the Republic of the Rif. It took a combined French and Spanish force numbering more than 250,000 troops before he was defeated. In May 1926 he surrendered to the French and was exiled.

      The remainder of the period of the Spanish protectorate was relatively calm. Thus, in 1936, General Francisco Franco (Franco, Francisco) was able to launch his attack on the Spanish Republic from Morocco and to enroll a large number of Moroccan volunteers, who served him loyally in the Spanish Civil War. Though the Spanish had fewer resources than the French, their subsequent regime was in some respects more liberal and less subject to ethnic discrimination. The language of instruction in the schools was Arabic rather than Spanish, and Moroccan students were encouraged to go to Egypt for a Muslim education. There was no attempt to set Amazigh against Arab as in the French Zone, but this might have been the result of the introduction of Muslim law by Abd el-Krim himself. After the Republic of the Rif was suppressed, there was little cooperation between the two protecting powers. Their disagreement reached a new intensity in 1953 when the French deposed and deported the sultan. The Spanish high commissioner, who had not been consulted, refused to recognize this action and continued to regard Muḥammad V as the sovereign in the Spanish Zone. Nationalists forced to leave the French area used the Spanish Zone as a refuge.

      In 1956, however, the Spanish authorities were taken by surprise when the French decided to grant independence to Morocco. A corresponding agreement with the Spanish was nevertheless reached on April 7, 1956, and was marked by a visit of the sultan to Spain. The Spanish protectorate was thus brought to an end without the troubles that marked the termination of French control. With the end of the Spanish protectorate and the withdrawal of the Spanish high commissioner, the Moroccan khalīfah, and other officials from Tétouan, the city again became a quiet, provincial capital. The introduction of the Moroccan franc to replace the peseta as currency, however, caused a great rise in the cost of living in the former Spanish area, along with difficulties brought on by the introduction of French-speaking Moroccan officials. In 1958–59 these changes generated disorders in the Rif region. Tangier, too, lost much of the superficial brilliance it had developed as a separate zone. As in the former French Zone, many European and Jewish inhabitants left. The southern protectorate area of Tarfaya was handed back to Morocco in 1958, while the Spanish unconditionally gave up Ifni in 1970, hoping to gain recognition of their rights to Melilla and Ceuta.

      Ceuta, on the Strait of Gibraltar, and Melilla, farther east on the Mediterranean coast, continue to be Spanish presidios on Moroccan soil, both with overwhelmingly Spanish populations. In October 1978 the United States turned over to Morocco a military base, its last in Africa, at Kenitra.

Independent Morocco

      The French protectorate had successfully developed communications, added modern quarters to the cities, and created a flourishing agriculture and a modern industry based on a colonial model. Most of these activities, however, were managed by Europeans. In the constitutional field there had been virtually no development. Though the government was in practice under French supervision, in theory the powers of the sultan were unrestrained. By French insistence, the first cabinet was composed of ministers representing the various groups of Moroccan society, including one from Morocco's Jewish minority. Mubarak Bekkai, an army officer who was not affiliated with any party, was selected as prime minister. The sultan (who officially adopted the title of king in August 1957) selected the ministers personally and retained control of the army and the police; he did, however, nominate a Consultative Assembly of 60 members. His eldest son, Mawlāy Hassan (Hassan II), became chief of staff, and by degrees successfully integrated the irregular liberation forces into the military even after they had supported an uprising against the Spanish in Ifni and against the French in Mauritania.

      In general, the changeover to Moroccan control, assisted by French advisers, took place smoothly. Because of the continuing war in Algeria, which Morocco tacitly supported, relations with France were strained; close ties were maintained, however, because Morocco still depended on French technology and financial aid.

      A major political change occurred in 1959 when the Istiqlāl split into two sections. The main portion remained under the leadership of Muḥammad ʿAllāl al-Fāsī, while a smaller section, headed by Mehdi Ben Barka (Ben Barka, Mehdi), ʿAbd Allāh Ibrāhīm, ʿAbd al-Raḥīm Bouabid, and others, formed the National Union of Popular Forces (Union Nationale des Forces Populaires, or UNFP). Of these groupings the original Istiqlāl represented the more traditional elements, while the UNFP, formed from the younger intelligentsia, favoured socialism with republican leanings. Muḥammad V made use of these dissensions to assume the position of an arbiter above party strife. He nevertheless continued preparations for the creation of a parliament until his unexpected death in 1961, when his son succeeded him as Hassan II.

      In 1963, when parliamentary elections were finally held, the two halves of the former Istiqlāl formed an opposition, while a party supporting the king was created out of miscellaneous elements and came to be known as the Front for the Defense of Constitutional Institutions. This included a new, predominantly Amazigh, rural group opposed to the Istiqlāl. The ensuing near deadlock caused the king to dissolve Parliament after only one year, and, with himself or his nominee as prime minister, a form of personal government was resumed. In 1970 a new constitution was promulgated that provided for a one-house legislature; yet this document did not survive an abortive coup by army elements against the monarchy in July 1971. The following year Hassan announced another constitution, but its implementation was largely suspended following another attempted military coup in August. The second coup was apparently led by Minister of Defense General Muḥammad Oufkir; he had earlier been implicated in the kidnapping (1965) and disappearance in Paris of the exiled Moroccan UNFP leader Mehdi Ben Barka (Ben Barka, Mehdi), who had been regarded as a likely candidate for the presidency of a Moroccan republic. Oufkir subsequently died at the royal palace, supposedly by his own hand, while hundreds of suspects, including members of his family, were imprisoned. Elections held in 1977, which were widely regarded as fraudulent, brought a landslide victory to the king's supporters. King Hassan's forceful policies to absorb Spanish (Western) Sahara (Western Sahara) gave him increased popularity in the mid-1970s. This, in addition to his method of mixing efforts to co-opt the political opposition with periods of political repression, served to maintain royal control.

      By the early 1980s, however, several bad harvests, a sluggish economy, and the continued financial drain of the war in Western Sahara increased domestic strains, of which violent riots in Casablanca in June 1981 were symptomatic. The need for political reform became even more pressing when international lending agencies and human rights organizations turned their attention to Morocco's troubled internal state of affairs.

      The threat of an Algerian-style insurrection fueled by a radical Islamic opposition worried the political leadership throughout the 1990s and into the early 21st century. The government has continued to closely watch the most militant groups. Along with the disaffected urban youth who occasionally took to the streets, the Islamist sympathizers have tested the limits of a new political tolerance. Thus, the 1990s were marked by greater liberalization and a sense of personal freedom, although direct criticism of the king and the royal family were still prohibited. Amnesties for political prisoners long held in remote regions of the country signaled a new attention to human rights, while much publicized curbs on the power of the police and security forces suggested closer adherence to the rule of law.

Foreign policy

      The foreign policy of independent Morocco has often differed from that of its Arab neighbours. Throughout the Cold War, Morocco generally sided with the western European powers and the United States rather than with the Eastern bloc, whereas other Arab states usually chose neutral or even pro-Soviet positions. King Hassan helped to prepare the way for the Camp David Accords (1978) between Israel and Egypt by opening up a political dialogue with Israel in the 1970s, well in advance of other Arab leaders, and by continually pressing both Palestinians and Israelis to seek a compromise solution. Morocco closely supported the United States in the Gulf War (1991) and its pursuit of peace in the Middle East. Unlike other Arab states, Morocco has maintained ties with its former Jewish (Jew) citizens who now reside in Israel, Europe, and North and South America.

      Morocco's relations with neighbouring North African states have not always been smooth, especially those with Libya and its leader Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi (Qaddafi, Muammar al-). Shunning the Libyan leader's volatile political style, Hassan nevertheless tried, in the 1990s, to reintegrate Libya into the Maghribī fold. Events in Western Sahara disrupted relations with Algeria beginning in the early 1970s, because Algeria generally opposed Morocco's policies there.

Western Sahara

      From the mid-1970s King Hassan actively campaigned to assert Morocco's claim to Spanish Sahara, initially using this nationalist issue also to rally much-needed domestic support. In November 1975, after a UN mission had reported that the majority of Saharans wanted independence and had recommended self-determination for the region, Hassan responded with the “Green March,” in which some 200,000 volunteers were sent unarmed across the border to claim Spanish Sahara. To avoid a confrontation, Spain signed an agreement relinquishing its claim to the territory. The region, renamed Western Sahara, was to be administered jointly by Morocco and Mauritania. By early 1976 the last Spanish troops had departed, leaving Morocco to struggle with a growing Saharan guerrilla group named the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Río de Oro (Polisario (Polisario Front)), actively supported by Algeria and later by Libya.

      Hassan offered to hold a referendum in the area in 1981, but it was rejected by the Polisario leadership as being too much on Moroccan terms. Fighting continued, and Morocco was able to secure some two-thirds of the territory within defensive walls by 1986. In the meantime, the territory's government-in-exile, the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic, won recognition from an increasing number of foreign governments. Improving ties between Morocco and Algeria beginning in 1987–88, along with a UN-sponsored peace proposal accepted by Morocco in 1988, augured a solution to the problem, but military action by the Polisario the following year prompted King Hassan to cancel further talks.

      In 1991 a UN Security Council resolution promised the most definitive solution to Morocco's claim to Western Sahara in 15 years. The resolution called for a referendum on the future of the territory to decide whether it should be annexed to Morocco or become an independent state. However, both Morocco and the Polisario front were unable to agree on the makeup of the voter lists for the referendum, fearful of entering into an electoral process they might lose. Although agreement on other issues such as political detainees and prisoners of war was reached through UN mediation, stalemate over the code of conduct of the referendum has continued, leaving the issue unresolved.

Hassan's last years

      By the end of the 1990s, King Hassan II had the distinction of being the Arab world's longest-surviving monarch. He actively promoted a program of liberalization in Morocco and managed to recast an image of an old-style autocrat, reshaping himself and his country to reflect more progressive values. New political freedoms and constitutional reforms enacted in the 1990s culminated in the election of the first opposition government in Morocco in more than 30 years. In 1997 opposition parties won the largest bloc of seats in the lower house, and in March 1998 Abderrahmane Youssoufi (ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Yūsufī), a leader of the Socialist Union of Popular Forces, was appointed as prime minister. Under pressure from human rights organizations, Hassan also directed a vigorous cleanup campaign that led to the ousting and even execution of corrupt officials as well as the release of more than a thousand political detainees, some of whom had been held for nearly 25 years. Despite these major political reforms, the king retained ultimate political authority, including the right to dismiss the government, veto laws, and rule by emergency decree.

      Hassan also guarded his status as religious head of state and carefully nurtured those aspects of his public image that garnered widespread support in the countryside and among the urban poor. Using public donations, he oversaw the completion in August 1993 of a huge $600 million mosque built on the shoreline at Casablanca, which features a retractable roof and a powerful green laser beam aimed at Mecca from atop its towering minaret. Paradoxically, his main political foes were also found in the religious arena, among the Islamic militants, whom he tried to hold within strict limits. But even at this point of contention, he showed some flexibility: In 1994 a number of political prisoners with ties to religious groups critical of the monarchy were pardoned by Hassan, and in December 1995 Abdessalam Yassine (ʿAbd al-Salām Yāsīn), the leader of the outlawed Islamic organization The Justice and Charity Group (Jamāʿat al-ʿAdl wa al-Iḥsān), was released after spending six years under house arrest.

      When Hassan died in July 1999, his son, Muḥammad VI, took up the reins of government and immediately faced a political maelstrom. Controversy raged in Morocco over government proposals to afford women broader access to public life—including greater access to education and more thorough representation within the government and civil service—and to provide them with more equity within society, such as greater rights in marriage, inheritance, and divorce. A liberal program of this type, in Morocco's conservative and religious society, fueled dissent among Islamic groups, and a number of organizations—ranging from Muslim fundamentalist groups to members of international human rights organizations—gathered in large demonstrations in Casablanca and Rabat to support or oppose the government's program.

Nevill Barbour L. Carl Brown Susan Gilson Miller

Additional Reading

Geography

A good general overview is provided by Harold D. Nelson, Morocco: A Country Study, 5th ed. (1986). The following are outstanding studies of traditional life and socioeconomic change: Kenneth L. Brown, People of Salé: Tradition and Change in a Moroccan City, 1830–1930 (1976); David Seddon, Moroccan Peasants: A Century of Change in the Eastern Rif, 1870–1970 (1981); Clifford Geertz, Hildred Geertz, and Lawrence Rosen, Meaning and Order in Moroccan Society (1979), an analysis of traditional economic and family organization; and Dale F. Eickelman, Moroccan Islam: Tradition and Society in a Pilgrimage Center (1976), and Knowledge and Power in Morocco (1985), the latter discussing traditional religious education and learning. A report on the status of Moroccan women is provided by Fatima Mernissi (ed.), Doing Daily Battle: Interviews with Moroccan Women (1988, originally published in French, 1984). Morocco's relations with sub-Saharan Africa and the institution of slavery are the subject of Mohammed Ennaji, Serving the Master: Slavery and Society in Nineteenth-Century Morocco (1999, originally published in French, 1994). Classical analyses of traditional Berber society are found in Ernest Gellner, Saints of the Atlas (1969); and David Montgomery Hart, The Aith Waryaghar of the Moroccan Rif: An Ethnography and History (1976). Robin Bidwell, Morocco Under Colonial Rule: French Administration of Tribal Areas, 1912–1956 (1973), examines colonial rural development policies. I. William Zartman (ed.), The Political Economy of Morocco (1987), provides valuable insights into many different aspects of contemporary Morocco. The environmental ideals and politics behind colonial and contemporary agricultural development are perceptively analyzed in Will D. Swearingen, Moroccan Mirages: Agrarian Dreams and Deceptions, 1912–1986 (1987); threats to the natural environment are discussed in Will D. Swearingen and Abdellatif Bencherifa (eds.), The North African Environment at Risk (1996); and a similar analysis focusing on the urban geography of Morocco's capital is Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Rabat: Urban Apartheid in Morocco (1980). The texture of life in the modern city is captured by anthropologist Susan Ossman in Picturing Casablanca: Portraits of Power in a Modern City (1994).

History

A comprehensive interpretive essay is Abdallah Laroui, The History of the Maghrib (1977, originally published in French, 1970). Edmund Burke III, Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco: Precolonial Protest and Resistance, 1860–1912 (1976), gives a solid interpretation of how Morocco came under colonial rule. The role of the monarchy throughout history and its symbolic value are treated in Rahma Bourqia and Susan Gilson Miller (eds.), In the Shadow of the Sultan: Culture, Power and Politics in Morocco (1999). Popular religion and its social manifestations are the subject of Abdellah Hammoudi, Master and Disciple: The Cultural Foundations of Moroccan Authoritarianism (1997); and M.E. Combs-Schilling, Sacred Performances: Islam, Sexuality, and Sacrifice (1989). William A. Hoisington, Jr., Lyautey and the French Conquest of Morocco (1995), is a survey of French policy in the early years of the protectorate. David S. Woolman, Rebels in the Rif: Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion (1968), covers this short-lived revolt. John P. Halstead, Rebirth of a Nation: The Origins and Rise of Moroccan Nationalism, 1912–1944 (1967), reviews the early nationalists. A thorough case study of decolonization is Stéphane Bernard, Le Conflit franco-marocain, 1943–1956, 3 vol. (1963)—vols. 1 and 2 have been translated as The Franco-Moroccan Conflict, 1943–1956 (1968). An older yet still useful political study is John Waterbury, The Commander of the Faithful: The Moroccan Political Elite: A Study in Segmented Politics (1970). The origins and evolution of the Western Sahara conflict are competently treated in John Damis, Conflict in Northwest Africa: The Western Sahara Dispute (1983). Susan Gilson Miller

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