menstruation

/men'strooh ay"sheuhn, -stray"-/, n.

1. the periodic discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the uterus, occurring approximately monthly from puberty to menopause in nonpregnant women and females of other primate species.

2. the period of menstruating.

[1770-80; MENSTRUATE + -ION]

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Periodic discharge from the vagina of blood, secretions, and shed mucous lining of the uterus (endometrium).

The endometrium prepares to receive a fertilized egg by thickening and producing secretions. If the egg released by the ovary is not fertilized, the endometrium breaks down and is expelled by contractions of the uterus. The first menstruation (menarche) occurs after other changes of puberty, usually at 11–13 years of age, apparently triggered by the passing of a weight threshold. Bleeding may be irregular or heavy at first. In adult women, menstrual periods begin at an average interval of 28 days and last about five days; some variation among women and in the same woman is normal. Uterine contractions are felt as cramps. The amount of blood lost is usually less than 1.7 oz (50 ml). Menstruation ends with menopause. Menstrual disorders include dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) and amenorrhea (no bleeding), heavy or light bleeding, and uterine bleeding. See also premenstrual syndrome.

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Introduction

 periodic discharge from the vagina of blood, secretions, and disintegrating mucous membrane that had lined the uterus.

      The biological significance of the process in humans can best be explained by reference to the reproductive function in other mammals. In a number of species of wild sheep, for example, there is only one breeding season in the year; during this season a cycle of changes takes place in the reproductive organs, characterized by ripening and release of ova from the ovaries, increased blood supply to the genital tract, growth of the uterus, and proliferation of its lining. There is a discharge of blood and mucus from the uterus and vagina, and this is the time when coition may take place. Pregnancy normally follows, but if the ewe is not served by the ram the changes retrogress until the next breeding season. This cycle of changes is termed the estrous cycle.

      In many domesticated sheep there is more than one estrous cycle in the breeding season. If the ewe does not become pregnant in the first cycle there is a short resting phase; then ovulation is repeated and another cycle of activity of the reproductive system takes place. After each breeding period, with its succession of estrous cycles, there is a relatively long resting phase.

      In most female primates, including women, there is no resting phase; an unbroken series of estrous cycles occurs throughout the year, and pregnancy can occur in any one of them.

      In some animals a variety of external stimuli act (endocrine system, human) through the central nervous system on the hypothalamic region of the brain. The hypothalamus controls the release from the pituitary gland of hormones (sex hormone) that induce ripening of ovarian follicles—ova and the cellular structures that enclose them. These pituitary hormones, called gonadotropic hormones, are carried to the ovaries by way of the bloodstream. In primates the hypothalamic mechanism normally is independent of external stimuli, and regular discharge of ova into the tubes leading to the uterus occurs even in the absence of coitus. Under the influence of the pituitary gonadotropic hormones, the ovary produces other hormones, which cause growth and increased vascularity of the uterus and vagina. These hormones are estrogens (estrogen)—chiefly 17 beta-estradiol—and progesterone. It is as though the ovary prepares the uterus for the reception of the ovum that is released in the particular cycle.

Phases of the menstrual cycle

      The normal human menstrual cycle is 28 days, but no woman is always precisely regular, and cycles as short as 21 days or as long as 35 days are not abnormal. It is customary to call the first day of the menstrual period the first day of the cycle, although menstruation is the end rather than the beginning of a process. On this basis the cycle is described as starting with about five days of menstruation, followed by a proliferative phase that lasts to about the 14th day, and then a secretory phase that lasts until the next menstruation. The external manifestation of menstruation depends upon cyclical change in the lining of the body of the uterus. The lining, called endometrium, consists of tubular glands that open into the uterine cavity. The glands lie in a vascular framework, or stroma, and are separated by it.

      At the end of menstruation, just at the beginning of the proliferative phase, the endometrium is thin, with short, straight glands, and the ovary is quiescent. Under the influence of the gonadotropic hormones from the pituitary gland an ovarian follicle (occasionally more than one) ripens in one of the ovaries. This ovarian follicle contains the ovum, which is a cell about 0.14 millimetre (0.006 inch) in diameter, surrounded by a group of smaller cells, called granulosa cells. The granulosa cells multiply, with the ovum situated in the wall of the rounded structure that they form, and secrete an estrogenic hormone, estradiol (see hormone). This hormone causes proliferative changes in the endometrium, so that the glands become taller and the whole endometrium becomes thicker and more vascular.

      At about mid-cycle ovulation occurs: The ovum is discharged out of the follicle and from the surface of the ovary, to be received into the fallopian tube, down which it is carried to the uterus. After ovulation the granulosa cells lining the follicle from which the ovum has been extruded accumulate yellow lipid and are therefore called lutein cells, from the Latin word luteus, “saffron-yellow.” The altered follicle is called corpus luteum. The corpus luteum continues to secrete estrogens but now also secretes progesterone; this additional hormone induces the secretory phase in the endometrium. The endometrial glands are distended with secretion and become very tortuous, while the stromal cells are swollen. The appearance of the endometrium at the end of the menstrual cycle is indistinguishable from that of early pregnancy, and this endometrial change is a preparation for the reception of the ovum. If it is fertilized, the ovum liberated at mid-cycle reaches the uterine cavity at a time when the endometrium is in the secretory phase, and the ovum embeds itself in the endometrium and starts its growth. If the ovum is not fertilized the endometrium breaks down and menstruation occurs. Menstruation has therefore been described as the outward evidence of the abortive close of one cycle and the hopeful commencement of the next.

      When the ovum dies, the corpus luteum degenerates and ceases to produce hormones. On the withdrawal of estrogens and progesterone there is sudden spasm of the endometrial blood vessels, and all but the basal layer of the endometrium dies. The disintegrating endometrium is shed, together with some blood. The endometrium contains plasmin, an enzyme that dissolves blood clots, so that the menstrual discharge is normally fluid. The total blood loss does not ordinarily exceed 50 millilitres (1.69 U.S. fluid ounces).

      After menstruation the endometrium regenerates from the residual basal layer during the proliferative phase of the next cycle.

Hormonal control of menstrual cycle

      The ovarian hormones circulate in the blood and are excreted in modified forms in the urine. Estimation of the urinary output by chemical methods gives an indication of the blood levels and of the total production of these substances. There are several natural estrogens, and numerous synthetic modifications of these and of progesterone have been devised; many are active when taken by mouth and are used for treatment of hormonal disorders and as oral contraceptives (contraception).

      The cyclic events in the ovary that have already been mentioned depend on gonadotropic hormones secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; this gland is situated in a small recess at the base of the skull. There are two, and possibly three, gonadotropic hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and, possibly, luteotropic hormone (prolactin) (LTH).

      FSH is secreted in greatest amount in the first half of the menstrual cycle, and LH has its peak of secretion at mid-cycle. It is believed that the sequential action of FSH and LH causes ripening of the follicle and ovulation. In some animals LTH is necessary for maintenance of the corpus luteum, but in women under treatment for infertility ovulation has been successfully induced with FSH and LH alone. Multiple births, as the result of multiple ovulation, have occurred after excessive doses of FSH have been given.

      The pituitary gland stimulates the ovary to produce estrogens and progesterone, but there is a “negative feedback” by which the estrogens inhibit the output of FSH from the pituitary gland (and probably stimulate the output of LH). In addition, progesterone is believed to inhibit the further output of LH. In this process, in which the pituitary first stimulates the ovary, and the ovary then inhibits the pituitary, the basic rhythm is under the control of the hypothalamus; nevertheless, ovulation can be inhibited by oral contraceptives, which contain estrogens and progestogens—modifications of progesterone.

      The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is connected by its stalk to the hypothalamic region of the brain. The anterior lobe secretes many important hormones, including those that control the activity of the adrenal and thyroid glands, the growth hormone, and the gonadotropic hormones. From the hypothalamus substances are carried in the veins in the pituitary stalk that cause release of hormones from the pituitary, including FSH and LH, but also a factor that inhibits release of LTH. The higher brain centres no doubt affect the hypothalamic function; this explains the temporary disturbances of menstruation that may follow emotional stress.

Ovulation and the fertile phase

      Ovulation occurs at about the midpoint of each normal cycle, and the ovum is probably capable of fertilization for only about two days after this. In the majority of women the time of ovulation is fairly constant. In women with cycles of irregular length the date of ovulation is uncertain; in these women the long menstrual cycles are usually due to prolongation of the proliferative phase; the secretory phase tends to remain normal in length. In some animals, ovulation only follows coitus; this mechanism has been used to explain cases in which human pregnancy has apparently followed coitus early or late in the menstrual cycle, but there is no definite evidence for such a mechanism in women.

      The rhythm method of contraception is based on the fact that ovulation normally occurs at mid-cycle, but the date of ovulation may vary unexpectedly even in women whose menstrual cycles were previously regular.

The menarche

      The first menstruation, or menarche, usually occurs between 11 and 13 years of age, but in a few otherwise normal children menstruation may begin sooner or may be delayed. If the menstrual periods have not started by the age of 16 gynecological investigation is indicated. The menarche is preceded by other signs of estrogenic activity, such as enlargement of the breasts and the uterus and growth of pubic hair. The ovarian response to gonadotropic hormones may be erratic at first, so that irregular or heavy bleeding sometimes occurs, but this irregularity nearly always disappears spontaneously.

Normal menstruation

      Each menstrual period lasts for about five days, but the duration and amount of the flow vary considerably even in perfect health.

      In some women there may be premonitory symptoms such as pelvic discomfort, soreness of the breasts (because of the response of these organs to estrogens), and emotional tension. Ovarian hormones cause retention of sodium and water in the tissue fluids; premenstrual tension, sometimes called premenstrual syndrome, may be partly due to this and in some cases can be relieved by diuretics (diuretic), drugs that increase the production of urine. When the menstrual flow starts, the uterus contracts to expel the blood and disintegrating endometrium. These contractions may be painful, especially in young women who have never been pregnant. Menstrual discomforts such as those that have been mentioned vary greatly in degree from woman to woman and from time to time but ordinarily do not interfere with normal activities.

Sir Stanley George Clayton Ed.

Additional Reading

Information on menstruation may be found in Doreen Asso, The Real Menstrual Cycle (1983); John G. Gruhn and Ralph R. Kazer, Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle (1989); and Linda R. Gannon, Menstrual Disorders and Menopause: Biological, Psychological, and Cultural Research (1985). Ed.

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