mammal

—mammallike, adj.

/mam"euhl/, n.

any vertebrate of the class Mammalia, having the body more or less covered with hair, nourishing the young with milk from the mammary glands, and, with the exception of the egg-laying monotremes, giving birth to live young.

[1820-30; as sing. of NL Mammalia neut. pl. of LL mammalis of the breast. See MAMMA², -AL¹]

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Any member of the class (Mammalia) of warm-blooded vertebrates having four limbs (except for some aquatic species) and distinguished from other chordate classes by the female's milk-secreting glands and the presence of hair at some stage of development.

Other unique characteristics include a jaw hinged directly to the skull, hearing through bones in the middle ear, a muscular diaphragm separating the pectoral and abdominal cavities, and nonnucleated mature red blood cells. Mammals range in size from the tiny shrew to the enormous blue whale. Monotremes (platypus and echidna) lay eggs; all other mammals bear live young. Marsupial newborns complete their development outside the womb, sometimes in a pouchlike structure. Placental mammals (see placenta) are born at a relatively advanced stage of development. The earliest mammals date from the late Triassic Period (which ended 206 million years ago); their immediate ancestors were the reptilian therapsids. For 70 million years mammals have been the dominant animals in terrestrial ecosystems, a consequence of two principal factors: the great behavioral adaptability provided by the ability of mammalian young to learn from their elders (a consequence of their dependence on their mothers for nourishment) and the physical adaptability to a wide range of climates and conditions provided by their warm-bloodedness. See also carnivore; cetacean; herbivore; insectivore; omnivore; primate; rodent.

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Introduction

 any member of the group of vertebrate animals in which the young are nourished with milk from special mammary glands (mammary gland) of the mother. In addition to these characteristic milk glands, mammals are distinguished by several other unique features. hair is a typical mammalian feature, although in many whales it has disappeared except in the fetal stage. The mammalian lower jaw is hinged directly to the skull, instead of through a separate bone (the quadrate) as in all other vertebrates. A chain of three tiny bones transmits sound waves across the middle ear. A muscular diaphragm separates the heart and the lungs from the abdominal cavity. Only the left aortic arch persists. (In birds the right aortic arch persists; in reptiles, amphibians, and fishes both arches are retained.) Mature red blood cells (erythrocytes (erythrocyte)) in all mammals lack a nucleus; all other vertebrates have nucleated red blood cells.

      Except for the monotremes (monotreme) (an egg-laying order of mammals comprising echidnas and the duck-billed platypus), all mammals are viviparous (viviparity)—they bear live young. In the placental mammals (including humans), the young are carried within the mother's womb, reaching a relatively advanced stage of development before birth. In the marsupials (marsupial) (kangaroos, opossums, and allies), the newborn are incompletely developed at birth and continue to develop outside the womb, attaching themselves to the female's body in the area of her mammary glands. Some marsupials have a pouchlike structure or fold, the marsupium, that shelters the suckling young.

      The class Mammalia is worldwide in distribution. It has been said that mammals have a wider distribution and are more adaptable than any other single class of animals, with the exception of certain less-complex forms such as arachnids and insects. This versatility in exploiting the Earth is attributed in large part to the ability of mammals to regulate their body temperatures and internal environment both in excessive heat and aridity and in severe cold.

General features

Diversity

      The evolution of the class Mammalia has produced tremendous diversity in form and habit. Living kinds range in size from a bat weighing less than a gram and tiny shrews (shrew) weighing but a few grams to the largest animal that has ever lived, the blue whale, which reaches a length of more than 30 metres (100 feet) and a weight of 180 metric tons (nearly 200 short [U.S.] tons). Every major habitat has been exploited by mammals that swim, fly, run, burrow, glide, or climb.

      There are approximately 5,000 species of living mammals, arranged in about 125 families and 29 orders (familial and ordinal groupings sometimes vary among authorities). The rodents (rodent) (order Rodentia) are the most numerous of existing mammals, in both number of species and number of individuals, and are one of the most diverse of living lineages. In contrast, the order Tubulidentata is represented by a single living species, the aardvark. The Uranotheria (elephants (elephant) and their kin) and Perissodactyla (perissodactyl) (horses (horse), rhinoceroses (rhinoceros), and allies) are examples of orders in which far greater diversity occurred in the middle and late Tertiary Period (about 3 million to about 30 million years ago) than today.

      The greatest present-day diversity is seen in continental tropical regions, although members of the class Mammalia live on (or in seas adjacent to) all major landmasses. Mammals can also be found on many oceanic islands, which are principally, but by no means exclusively, inhabited by bats. Major regional faunas can be identified; these resulted in large part from evolution in comparative isolation of stocks of early mammals that reached these areas. South America (the Neotropics), for example, was separated from North America (the Nearctic) from about 65 million to 2.5 million years ago. Mammalian groups that had reached South America before the break between the continents, or some that “island-hopped” after the break, evolved independently from relatives that remained in North America. Some of the latter became extinct as the result of competition with more advanced groups, whereas those in South America flourished, some radiating to the extent that they have successfully competed with invaders since the rejoining of the two continents. Australia provides a parallel case of early isolation and adaptive radiation of mammals (specifically the monotremes and marsupials (marsupial)), although it differs in that Australia was not later connected to any other landmass. The placental mammals that reached Australia (rodents and bats) evidently did so by island-hopping long after the adaptive radiation of the mammals isolated early on.

      In contrast, North America and Eurasia (the Palearctic) are separate landmasses but have closely related faunas as the result of having been connected several times during the Pleistocene Epoch (1,800,000 to 10,000 years ago) and earlier across the Bering Strait. Their faunas frequently are thought of as representing not two distinct units but one, related to such a degree that a single name, Holarctic, is applied to it.

Importance to humans

      Wild and domesticated (domestication) mammals are so interlocked with our political and social history that it is impractical to attempt to assess the relationship in precise economic terms. Throughout our own evolution, for example, humans have depended on other mammals for food and clothing. Domestication of mammals helped to provide a source of protein for ever-increasing human populations and provided means of transportation and heavy work as well. Today, domesticated strains of the house mouse, European rabbit, guinea pig, hamster, gerbil, and other species provide much-needed laboratory subjects for the study of human-related physiology, psychology, and a variety of diseases from dental caries to cancer. The study of nonhuman primates (primate) (monkeys and apes) has opened broad new areas of research relevant to human welfare. The care of domestic and captive mammals is, of course, the basis for the practice of veterinary medicine.

      Wild mammals are a major source of food in some parts of the world, and many different kinds, from fruit bats (Old World fruit bat) and armadillos (armadillo) to whales (whale), are captured and eaten by various cultural groups. In addition, hunting, primarily for sport, of various rodents (rodent), lagomorphs (lagomorph), carnivores (carnivore), and ungulates (ungulate) is a multibillion-dollar enterprise. In the United States alone, for example, it is estimated that more than two million deer are harvested annually by licensed hunters.

      Geopolitically, the quest for marine mammals was responsible for the charting of a number of areas in both Arctic and Antarctic regions. The presence of terrestrial furbearers, particularly beavers (beaver) and several species of mustelid carnivores (e.g., marten and fisher), was one of the principal motivations for the opening of the American West, Alaska, and the Siberian taiga. Ranch-raised animals such as the mink, fox, and chinchilla are also important to the fur industry, which directly and indirectly accounts for many millions of dollars in revenue each year in North America alone.

      Aside from pelts and meat, special parts of some mammals regularly have been sought for their special attributes. Rhinoceros horn is used for concocting potions in the Orient; ivory from elephants and walruses (walrus) is highly prized; and ambergris, a substance regurgitated by sperm whales (sperm whale), was once widely used as a base for perfumes.

      Some mammals are directly detrimental to human activities. House rats (rat) and mice (mouse) of Old World origin now occur virtually throughout the world and each year cause substantial damage and economic loss. Herbivorous mammals may eat or trample crops and compete with livestock for food, and native carnivores sometimes prey on domestic herds. Large sums are spent annually to control populations of “undesirable” wild mammals, a practice long deplored by conservationists. Not only do they have an impact on food resources, but mammals are also important reservoirs or agents of transmission of a variety of diseases (human disease) that afflict man, such as plague, tularemia, yellow fever, rabies, leptospirosis, Lyme disease, hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The annual “economic debt” resulting from mammalborne diseases that affect humans and domestic animals is incalculable.

      Many large mammals have been extirpated entirely or exist today only in parks and zoos; others are in danger of extinction, and their plight is receiving increased attention from a number of conservation agencies. By the early 21st century, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reported that nearly one-quarter of all mammals are at risk of extinction. The single greatest threat to these mammals is the continued destruction of their habitat; however, many species are also aggressively hunted. The IUCN classifies each imperiled mammal into one of the following categories: near threatened, vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered, critically endangered and possibly extinct, or extinct in the wild.

      One of the most noteworthy cases of direct extirpation by man is the Steller's sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas). These large (up to 10 metres, or 33 feet, long), inoffensive marine mammals evidently lived only along the coasts and shallow bays of the Komandor Islands in the Bering Sea. Discovered in 1741, they were easily killed by Russian sealers and traders for food, their meat being highly prized, and the last known live individual was taken in 1768.

      Of final note is the aesthetic value of wild mammals and the relatively recent expense of considerable energy and resources to study and, if possible, conserve vanishing species, to set aside natural areas where native floral and faunal elements can exist in an otherwise highly agriculturalized or industrialized society, and to establish modern zoological parks and gardens. Such outdoor “laboratories” attract millions of visitors annually and will provide means by which present and future generations of humans can appreciate and study, in small measure at least, other kinds of mammals.

Natural history

      The hallmarks of the mammalian level of organization are advanced reproduction and parental care, behavioral flexibility, and endothermy (the physiological maintenance of a relatively constant body temperature independent of that of the environment, allowing a high level of activity). Within the class, ecological diversity has resulted from adaptive specialization in food acquisition, habitat preferences, and locomotion.

      Throughout the past 65 million years, mammals have been the dominant animals in terrestrial ecosystems and important in nonterrestrial communities as well. The earliest mammals were small, active, predaceous, and terrestrial or semiarboreal. From this primitive stock mammals have radiated into a wide spectrum of adaptive modes against the background of the diverse environment of the Cenozoic Era (the last 65 million years). Branches of the ancestral terrestrial stock early exploited the protection and productivity of the trees, whereas other lineages added further dimensions to the mammalian spectrum by adapting to life beneath the ground, in the air, and in marine and freshwater habitats.

reproduction

Estrus and other cycles

      In reproductively mature (reproductive system, animal) female mammals, an interaction of hormones from the pituitary gland and the ovaries (ovary) produces a phenomenon known as the estrous cycle. estrus, or “heat,” typically coincides with ovulation, and during this time the female is receptive to the male. Estrus is preceded by proestrus, during which ovarian follicles mature under the influence of a follicle-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary. The follicular cells produce estrogen, a hormone that stimulates proliferation of the uterine lining, or endometrium. Following ovulation, in late estrus, the ruptured ovarian follicle forms a temporary endocrine gland known as the corpus luteum. Another hormone, progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum, causes the endometrium to become quiescent and ready for implantation of the developing egg (blastocyst), should fertilization occur. In members of the infraclass Eutheria (known as placental mammals), the placenta, as well as transmitting nourishment to the embryo, has an endocrine function, producing hormones that maintain the endometrium throughout gestation.

      If fertilization and implantation do not occur, a phase termed metestrus ensues, in which the reproductive tract assumes its normal condition. Metestrus may be followed by anestrus, a nonreproductive period characterized by quiescence or involution of the reproductive tract. On the other hand, anestrus may be followed by a brief quiescent period (diestrus) and another preparatory proestrus phase. Mammals that breed only once a year are termed monestrous and exhibit a long anestrus; those that breed more than once a year are termed polyestrous. In many polyestrous species the estrous cycle ceases during gestation and lactation (milk production), but some rodents (rodent) have a postpartum estrus and mate immediately after giving birth.

      The menstrual cycle (menstruation) of higher primates (primate) is derived from the estrous cycle but differs from estrus in that when progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum ceases, in the absence of fertilization, the uterine lining is sloughed. In anthropoids other than humans, a distinct period of “heat” occurs around the time of ovulation.

      Monotremes (monotreme) lay shelled eggs, but the ovarian cycle is similar to that of other mammals. The eggs are predominantly yolk (telolecithal), like those of reptiles and birds. Young monotremes hatch in a relatively early stage of development and are dependent upon the parent (altricial). They reach sexual maturity in about one year.

      The reproduction of marsupials (marsupial) differs from that of placentals in that the uterine wall is not specialized for the implantation of embryos. The period of intrauterine development varies from about 8 to 40 days. After this period the young migrate through the vagina to attach to the teats for further development. The pouch, or marsupium, is variously structured. Many species, such as kangaroos (kangaroo) and opossums (opossum), have a single well-developed pouch; in some phalangerids (cuscuses (cuscus) and brush-tailed possums (possum)), the pouch is compartmented, with a single teat in each compartment. The South American caenolestids, or rat opossums (rat opossum), have no marsupium. The young of most marsupials depend on maternal care through the pouch for considerable periods, 13 to 14 weeks in the North American, or Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Young koalas (koala) are carried in the pouch for nearly 8 months, kangaroos to 10 months.

Implantation, gestation, and birth

      Reproductive patterns in placental mammals (placental mammal) are diverse, but in all cases a secretory phase is present in the uterine cycle, and the endometrium is maintained by secretions of progesterone from the corpus luteum. The blastocyst implants in the uterine wall. Villi are embedded in the lining of the uterus. The resulting complex of embryonic and maternal tissues is a true placenta. The uterine lining may be shed with the fetal membranes as “afterbirth” (a condition called deciduate) or may be resorbed by the female (nondeciduate). Placentas have been classified on the basis of the relationship between maternal and embryonic tissues. In the simplest nondeciduate placental arrangement, the chorionic villi are in contact with uterine epithelium (the inner surface layer). In the “intimate deciduous” types, seen in primates, bats (bat), insectivores (insectivore), and rodents, the capillary endothelium (the layer containing minute blood vessels) of the uterine wall breaks down, and chorionic epithelium is in direct contact with maternal blood. In advanced stages of pregnancy in rabbits, even the chorionic epithelium is eroded, and the embryonic endothelium contacts the maternal blood supply. In no case, however, is there actual exchange of blood between mother and fetus; nutrients and gases must still pass through the walls of the fetal blood vessels.

      The period of intrauterine development, or gestation, varies widely among eutherians, generally depending on the size of the animal but also influenced by the number of young per litter and the condition of young at birth. The gestation period of the golden hamster is about 2 weeks, whereas that of the blue whale is 11 months and that of the African elephant 21 to 22 months.

      At birth the young may be well-developed and able to move about at once (precocial), or they may be blind, hairless, and essentially helpless (altricial). In general, precocial young are born after a relatively long gestation period and in a small litter. Hares (hare) and many large grazing mammals bear precocial offspring. Rabbits (rabbit), carnivores (carnivore), and most rodents bear altricial young.

      After birth young mammals are nourished by milk secreted by the mammary glands (mammary gland) of the female. The development of milk-producing tissue in the female mammae is triggered by conception, and the stimulation of suckling the newborn prompts copious lactation. In therians (marsupials and placentals) the glands open through specialized nipples. The newborn young of marsupials are unable to suckle, and milk is “pumped” to the young by the mother.

       milk consists of fat, protein (especially casein), and lactose (milk sugar), as well as vitamins and salts. The actual composition of milk of mammals varies widely among species. The milk of whales (whale) and seals (seal) is some 12 times as rich in fats and 4 times as rich in protein as that of domestic cows but contains almost no sugar. Milk provides an efficient energy source for the rapid growth of young mammals; the weight at birth of some marine mammals doubles in five days.

Behaviour

Social behaviour (Social behaviour in animals)

      The dependence of the young mammal on its mother for nourishment has made possible a period of training. Such training permits the nongenetic transfer of information between generations. The ability of young mammals to learn (animal learning) from the experience of their elders has allowed a behavioral plasticity unknown in any other group of organisms and has been a primary reason for the evolutionary success of mammals. The possibility of training is one of the factors that has made increased brain complexity a selective advantage. Increased associational potential and memory extend the possibility of learning from experience, and the individual can make adaptive behavioral responses to environmental change. Individual response to short-term change is far more efficient than genetic response.

      Some types of mammals are solitary except for brief periods when the female is in estrus. Others, however, form social groups. Such groups may be reproductive or defensive, or they may serve both functions. In those cases that have been studied in detail, a more or less strict hierarchy of dominance prevails. Within the social group, the hierarchy may be maintained through physical combat between individuals, but in many cases stereotyped patterns of behaviour evolve to displace actual combat, thereby conserving energy while maintaining the social structure.

      A pronounced difference between sexes (sexual dimorphism) is frequently extreme in social mammals. In large part this is because dominant males tend to be those that are largest or best-armed. Dominant males also tend to have priority in mating or may even have exclusive responsibility for mating within a “harem.” Rapid evolution of secondary sexual characteristics, including size, can take place in a species with such a social structure.

      A complex behaviour termed “ play” frequently occurs between siblings, between members of an age class, or between parent and offspring. Play extends the period of maternal training and is especially important in social species, providing an opportunity to learn behaviour appropriate to the maintenance of dominance.

Territoriality (territorial behaviour)

      That area covered by an individual in its general activity is frequently termed the home range. A territory is a part of the home range defended against other members of the same species. As a generalization it may be said that territoriality is more important in the behaviour of birds than of mammals, but data for the latter are available primarily for diurnal species. The phenomenon of territoriality may be more widespread than is supposed. Frequently territories of mammals are “marked,” either with urine or with secretions of specialized glands, as in lemurs (lemur). This form of territorial labeling is less evident to humans than the singing or visual displays of birds. Many mammals that do not maintain territories per se nevertheless will not permit unlimited crowding and will fight to maintain individual distance. Such mechanisms result in more economical spacing of individuals over the available habitat.

Ecology

Response to environmental cycles

      Mammals may react to environmental extremes with acclimatization, compensatory behaviour, or physiological specialization. Physiological responses to adverse conditions include torpor, hibernation (in winter), and estivation (in summer). Torpor may occur in the daily cycle or during unfavourable weather; short-term torpor is generally economical only for small mammals that can cool and warm rapidly. The body temperature of most temperate-zone bats (bat) drops near that of the ambient air whenever the animal sleeps. The winter dormancy of bears (bear) at high latitudes is an analogous phenomenon and cannot be considered true hibernation.

      True hibernation involves physiological regulation to minimize the expenditure of energy. The body temperature is lowered, and breathing may be slowed to as low as 1 percent of the rate in an active individual. There is a corresponding slowing of circulation and typically a reduction in the peripheral blood supply. When the body temperature nears the freezing point, spontaneous arousal occurs, although other kinds of stimuli generally elicit only a very slow response. In mammals that exhibit winter dormancy (such as bears, skunks (skunk), and raccoons (raccoon)), arousal may be quite rapid. Hibernation has evidently originated independently in a number of mammalian lines, and the comparative physiology of this complex phenomenon is only now beginning to be understood.

      Inactivity in response to adverse summer conditions (heat, drought, lack of food) is termed estivation. Estivation in some species is simply prolonged rest, usually in a favourable microhabitat; in other species estivating mammals regulate their metabolism, although the effects are typically not as pronounced as in hibernation.

      Behavioral response to adverse conditions may involve the selection or construction of a suitable microhabitat, such as the cool, moist burrows of desert rodents. migration is a second kind of behavioral response. The most obvious kind of mammalian migration is latitudinal. Many temperate-zone bats, for example, undertake extensive migrations, although other bat species hibernate near their summer foraging grounds in caves or other equable shelters during severe weather when insects are not available. Caribou (Rangifer tarandus (reindeer)), or reindeer, migrate from the tundra to the forest edge in search of a suitable winter range, and a number of cetaceans (cetacean) (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and pinnipeds (pinniped) (walruses and seals) undertake long migrations from polar waters to more temperate latitudes. Gray whales (gray whale), for example, migrate southward to calving grounds along the coasts of South Korea and Baja California from summer feeding grounds in the northern Pacific Ocean (Okhotsk, Bering, and Chukchi seas). Of comparable extent is the dispersive feeding migration of the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus).

      Migrations of lesser extent include the elevational movements from mountains to valleys of some ungulates—the American elk (Cervus canadensis), or wapiti, and bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), for example—and the local migrations of certain bats from summer roosts to hibernation sites. Most migratory patterns of mammals are part of a recurrent annual cycle, but the irruptive emigrations of lemmings (lemming) and snowshoe hares (hare) are largely acyclic responses to population pressure on food supplies.

Populations (population)

      A population consists of individuals of three “ecological ages”—prereproductive, reproductive, and postreproductive. The structure and dynamics of a population depend, among other things, on the relative lengths of these ages, the rate of recruitment of individuals (either by birth or by immigration), and the rate of emigration or death. The reproductive potential of some rodents is well known; some mice are reproductively mature at four weeks of age, have gestation periods of three weeks or less, and may experience postpartum estrus, with the result that pregnancy and lactation may overlap. Litter size, moreover, may average four or more, and breeding may occur throughout the year in favourable localities. The reproductive potential of a species is, of course, a theoretical maximum that is rarely met, inasmuch as, among other reasons, a given female typically does not reproduce throughout the year. Growth of a population depends on the survival of individuals to reproductive age. The absolute age at sexual maturity ranges from less than 4 weeks in some rodents to some 15 years in the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana).

      Postreproductive individuals are rare in most mammalian populations. Survival through more than a single reproductive season is probably uncommon in many small mammals, such as mice (mouse) and shrews (shrew). Larger species typically have longer life spans (life span) than do smaller kinds, but some bats (bat) are known, on the basis of banding records, to live nearly 20 years. Many species show greater longevity in captivity than in the wild. Captive echidnas (echidna) are reported to have lived more than 50 years. Horses (horse) have been reported to live more than 60 years, and elephants (elephant) have lived to more than 80. Various cetaceans (cetacean) survive to more than 90 years of age, and some Greenland right whales (Balaena mysticetus), or bowheads, are estimated to live 200 years or more.

locomotion

      Specialization in habitat preference has been accompanied by locomotor adaptations. Terrestrial mammals have a number of modes of progression. The primitive mammalian stock walked plantigrade—that is, with the digits, bones of the midfoot, and parts of the ankle and wrist in contact with the ground. The limbs of ambulatory mammals are typically mobile, capable of considerable rotation.

      Mammals modified for running are termed cursorial. The stance of cursorial species may be digitigrade (the complete digits contacting the ground, as in dogs) or unguligrade (only tips of digits contacting the ground, as in horses). In advanced groups limb movement is forward and backward in a single plane.

      Saltatory (leaping) locomotion, sometimes called “ricochetal,” has arisen in several unrelated groups (some marsupials (marsupial), lagomorphs (lagomorph), and several independent lineages of rodents (rodent)). This mode of locomotion is typically found in mammals living in open habitats. Jumping mammals typically have elongate, plantigrade hind feet, reduced forelimbs, and long tails. Convergent evolution (community ecology) within a given adaptive mode has contributed to the ecological similarity of regional mammalian faunas.

      Mammals of several orders have attained great size (elephants, hippopotamuses (hippopotamus), and rhinoceroses (rhinoceros)) and have converged on specializations for a ponderous mode of locomotion referred to as “graviportal.” These animals have no digit reduction and deploy the digits in a circle around the axis of the limb for maximum support, like the pedestal of a column.

      Bats are the only truly flying mammals. Only with active flight have the resources of the aerial habitat been successfully exploited. Mammals belonging to other groups (colugos (flying lemur), marsupials, rodents) are adapted for gliding. A gliding habit is frequently accompanied by scansorial (climbing) locomotion. Many nongliders, such as tree squirrels (squirrel), are also scansorial.

      Well-adapted arboreal mammals frequently are plantigrade, five-toed, and equipped with highly mobile limbs. Some species, including many New World monkeys (monkey), have a prehensile tail, which is used like a fifth hand. brachiation, or “arm walking,” in which the animal hangs from branches and moves by a series of long swings, is an adaptation seen in gibbons (gibbon). The primitive opposable anthropoid thumb is reduced as a specialization for this method of locomotion. Tarsiers (tarsier) are highly arboreal primates (primate) that have expanded pads on the digits to improve grasping, whereas many other arboreal mammals have claws or well-developed nails (nail).

      Several mammalian groups (sirenians (sirenian), cetaceans (cetacean), and pinnipeds (pinniped)) have independently assumed fully aquatic habits. In some cases semiaquatic mammals are relatively unmodified representatives of otherwise terrestrial groups (otters (otter), muskrats (muskrat), and water shrews (water shrew), for example). Other kinds have undergone profound modification for natatorial (swimming) locomotion for life at sea. Pinniped carnivores (walruses and seals) give birth to their young on land, but cetaceans are completely helpless out of water, on which they depend for mechanical support and thermal insulation.

Food habits

      The earliest mammals, like their reptilian ancestors, were active predators. From such a basal stock there has been a complex diversification (radiation) of trophic adaptations. Modern mammals occupy a wide spectrum of feeding niches (niche). In most terrestrial and some aquatic communities, carnivorous mammals are the top predators. Herbaceous mammals often serve as primary consumers in most ecosystems. The voracious shrews, smallest of mammals, sometimes prey on vertebrates larger than themselves. They may eat twice their weight in food each day to maintain their active metabolism and compensate for heat loss caused by an unfavourable surface-to-volume ratio. On the other hand, the largest of vertebrates, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), feeds on minute planktonic crustaceans called krill.

      Within a given lineage, the adaptive radiation of food habits may be broad. Some of the carnivores (carnivore) have become omnivorous (raccoons (raccoon), bears (bear)) or herbivorous (giant panda (panda, giant)). Marsupials (marsupial) exhibit a great variety of feeding types, and in Australia marsupials have radiated to fill ecological niches highly analogous to those of placental mammals elsewhere; there are marsupial “moles,” “anteaters,” “mice,” “rats,” “cats,” and “wolves.” Some bandicoots (bandicoot) have ecological roles similar to those of rabbits (rabbit), and wombats (wombat) are partially burrowing (semifossorial) herbivores analogous to marmots (marmot). In Australia the niche of large grazers and browsers is filled by a variety of kangaroos (kangaroo) and wallabies (wallaby).

      Within the bats there has also been a remarkable adaptive radiation of food habits. Early in the history of the order, there evidently was a divergence into insectivorous and frugivorous lines. The flying foxes (Old World fruit bat) (Megachiroptera) have generally maintained a fruit-eating habit, although some have become rather specialized nectar feeders. Members of the other major group (Microchiroptera) have been less conservative and have undergone considerable divergence in feeding habits. A majority of living microchiropterans are insectivorous, but members of two different families have become fish eaters. Within the large Neotropical family Phyllostomatidae, there are groups specialized to feed on fruit, nectar, insects, and small vertebrates (including other bats). Aberrant members of the family are the vampire bats (vampire bat), with a specialized dentition to aid blood lapping.

Form and function

Skin and hair

      The skin of mammals is constructed of two layers, a superficial nonvascular epidermis and an inner layer, the dermis, or corium. The two layers interdigitate via fingerlike projections (dermal papillae), consisting of sensitive vascular dermis projecting into the epidermis. The outermost layers of the epidermis are cornified (impregnated with various tough proteins), and their cells are enucleate (lacking cell nuclei). The epidermis is composed of flattened (squamous) cells in layers and is the interface between the individual and the environment. Its primary function is defensive, and it is cornified to resist abrasion. The surface of the skin is coated with lipids and organic salts, the so-called “acid mantle,” thought to have antifungal and antibacterial properties. Deep in the epidermis is an electronegative layer, a further deterrent to foreign organic or ionic agents.

      The dermis lies beneath the epidermis and nourishes it. The circulation of the dermis is variously developed in mammals, but it is typically extensive, out of proportion to the nutritional needs of the tissue. Its major role is to moderate body temperature and blood pressure by forming a peripheral shunt, an alternate route for the blood. Also in the dermis are sensory nerve endings to alert the individual to pressure (touch), heat, cold, and pain. In general, skin bearing hairs (hair) has few or no specialized sensory endings. The sensation of touch on hairy skin in humans (human being) depends on stimulation of the nerve fibres associated with the hairs. However, hairless skin, such as the lips and fingertips, has specialized endings.

      Hair is derived from an invagination (pocketing) of the epidermis termed a follicle. Collectively, the hair is called the pelage. The individual hair is a rod of keratinized (keratin) cells that may be cylindrical or more or less flattened. keratin is a protein also found in claws and nails. The inner medulla of the hair is hollow and contains air; in the outer cortex layer there are frequently pigment granules. Associated with the hair follicle are nerve endings and a muscle, the arrector pili. The latter allows the erection of individual hairs to alter the insulative qualities of the pelage. The follicle also gives rise to sebaceous glands (sebaceous gland) that produce sebum, a substance that lubricates the hair.

      Most mammals have three distinct kinds of hairs. Guard hairs protect the rest of the pelage from abrasion and frequently from moisture, and they usually lend a characteristic colour pattern. The thicker underfur is primarily insulative and may differ in colour from the guard hairs. The third common hair type is the vibrissa, or whisker, a stiff, typically elongate hair that functions in tactile sensation. Hairs may be further modified to form rigid quills. The “horn” of the rhinoceros is composed of a fibrous keratin material derived from hair. Examples of keratinized derivatives of the integument other than hair are horns (horn), hooves, nails (nail), claws (claw), and baleen (baleen whale).

      Even though the primary function of the skin is defensive, it has been modified in mammals to serve such diverse functions as thermoregulation and nourishment of young. Secretions of sweat glands promote cooling due to evaporation at the surface of the body, and mammary glands are thought to be derived from sweat glands.

      In certain groups (primates (primate) in particular) the skin of the face is under intricate muscular control, and movements of the skin express and communicate emotion. In many mammals the colour and pattern of the pelage are important in communicative behaviour. Patterns may be startling (dymantic), as seen in the mane of the male lion or hamadryas baboon, warning (sematic), as seen in the bold pattern of skunks (skunk), or concealing (cryptic (concealing coloration)), perhaps the most common adaptation of pelage colour.

      Hair has been secondarily lost or considerably reduced in some kinds of mammals. In adult cetaceans (cetacean) insulation is provided by thick subcutaneous fat deposits, or blubber, with hair limited to a few stiff vibrissae about the mouth. The bare skin is one of a number of features that contribute to the remarkably advanced hydrodynamics of locomotion in the group. Some burrowing (fossorial) mammals also tend toward reduction of the hair. This is shown most strikingly by the sand rats (sand rat) of northeastern Africa, but considerable loss of hair has also occurred in some species of pocket gophers (pocket gopher). Hair may also be lost on restricted areas of the skin, as from the face in many monkeys (monkey) or the buttocks of mandrills (mandrill), and may be sparse on elephants (elephant) and such highly modified species as pangolins (pangolin) and armadillos (armadillo).

      Continuous growth of hair (indeterminate), as seen on the heads of humans, is rare among mammals. Hairs with determinate growth are subject to wear and must be replaced periodically—a process termed molt. The first coat of a young mammal is referred to as the juvenal pelage, which typically is of fine texture like the underfur of adults and is replaced by a postjuvenile molt. Juvenal pelage is succeeded either directly by adult pelage or by the subadult pelage, which in some species is not markedly distinct from that of the adult. Once this pelage has been acquired, molting continues to recur at intervals, often annually or semiannually and sometimes more frequently. The pattern of molt typically is orderly, but it varies widely between species. Some mammals apparently molt continuously, with a few hairs at a time replaced throughout the year.

Dentition

      Specialization in food habits has led to profound dental changes. The primitive mammalian tooth had high, sharp cusps and served to tear flesh or crush chitinous material (primarily the exoskeletons of terrestrial arthropods, such as insects). Herbivores tend to have specialized cheek teeth with complex patterns of contact (occlusion) and various ways of expanding the crowns of the teeth and circumventing the problem of wear. Omnivorous mammals, such as bears, pigs, and humans, tend to have molars with low, rounded cusps, termed bunodont.

      A prime example of convergence in conjunction with dietary specialization is seen in those mammals adapted to feeding on ants and termites, a specialization generally termed myrmecophagy (“ant eating”). Trends frequently associated with myrmecophagy include strong claws, an elongate, rounded skull, a wormlike, extensible tongue, marked reduction in the mandible, and loss or extreme simplification of the dentition. This habit has led to remarkably similar morphology among animals as diverse as the echidna (a monotreme), the numbat (a marsupial), the anteater (a xenarthran), the aardvark (a tubulidentate), and the pangolin (a pholidotan).

      Specialized herbivores evolved early in mammalian history. The extinct multituberculates (multituberculate) were the earliest and have the longest evolutionary history. Similarities in teeth not due to common ancestry have occurred widely in herbivorous groups. Most herbivores have incisors modified for nipping or gnawing, have lost teeth with the resultant development of a gap (diastema) in the tooth row, and exhibit some molarization (expansion and flattening) of premolars to expand the grinding surface of the cheek teeth. Rootless incisors or cheek teeth have evolved frequently, their open pulp cavity allowing continual growth throughout life. Herbivorous specializations have evolved independently in multituberculates, rodents, lagomorphs, primates, and the wide diversity of ungulate and subungulate orders.

skeleton

      The mammalian skeletal system shows a number of advances over that of lower vertebrates. The mode of ossification of the long bones is characteristic. In lower vertebrates each long bone has a single centre of ossification (the diaphysis), and replacement of cartilage by bone proceeds from the centre toward the ends, which may remain cartilaginous, even in adults. In mammals secondary centres of ossification (the epiphyses) develop at the ends of the bones. Growth of bones occurs in zones of cartilage between diaphysis and epiphyses. Mammalian skeletal growth is termed determinate, for once the actively growing zone of cartilage has been obliterated, growth in length ceases. As in all bony vertebrates, of course, there is continual renewal of bone throughout life. The advantage of epiphyseal ossification lies in the fact that the bones have strong articular surfaces before the skeleton is mature. In general, the skeleton of the adult mammal has less structural cartilage than does that of a reptile.

      The skeletal system of mammals and other vertebrates is broadly divisible functionally into axial and appendicular portions. The axial skeleton consists of the braincase (cranium) and the backbone and ribs, and it serves primarily to protect the central nervous system. The limbs and their girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton. In addition, there are skeletal elements derived from the gill arches of primitive vertebrates, collectively termed the visceral skeleton. Visceral elements in the mammalian skeleton include the jaws (jaw), the hyoid apparatus supporting the tongue, and the auditory ossicles of the middle ear. The postcranial axial skeleton in mammals generally has remained rather conservative during the course of evolution. The vast majority of mammals have 7 cervical (neck) vertebrae; exceptions are sloths (sloth), with 6 or 9 cervicals, and the sirenians (sirenian) with 6. The anterior 2 cervical vertebrae are differentiated as atlas and axis. Specialized articulations of these 2 bones allow complex movements of the head on the trunk. Thoracic vertebrae bear ribs and are variable in number. The anterior ribs converge toward the ventral midline to articulate with the sternum, or breastbone, forming a semirigid thoracic “basket” for the protection of heart and lungs. Posterior to the thoracic region are the lumbar vertebrae, ranging from 2 to 21 in number (most frequently 4 to 7). Mammals have no lumbar ribs. There are usually 3 to 5 sacral vertebrae, but some xenarthrans (xenarthran) have as many as 13. Sacral vertebrae fuse to form the sacrum, to which the pelvic girdle is attached. Caudal (tail) vertebrae range in number from 5 (fused elements of the human coccyx) to 50.

      The basic structure of the vertebral column is comparable throughout the Mammalia, although in many instances modifications have occurred in specialized locomotor modes to gain particular mechanical advantages. The vertebral column and associated muscles of many mammals are structurally analogous to a cantilever girder.

      The skull is composite in origin and complex in function. Functionally the bones of the head are separable into the braincase and the jaws. In general, it is the head of the animal that meets the environment. The skull protects the brain and sense capsules, houses the teeth and tongue, and contains the entrance to the pharynx. Thus, the head functions in sensory reception, food acquisition, defense, respiration, and (in higher groups) communication. To serve these functions, bony elements have been recruited from the visceral skeleton, the endochondral skeleton, and the dermal skeleton of lower vertebrates.

      The skull of mammals differs markedly from that of reptiles because of the great expansion of the brain. The sphenoid bones that form the reptilian braincase form only the floor of the braincase in mammals. The side is formed in part by the alisphenoid bone, derived from the epipterygoid, a part of the reptilian palate. Dermal elements, the frontals and parietals, have come to lie deep to (beneath) the muscles of the jaw to form the dorsum of the braincase. Reptilian dermal roofing bones, lying superficial to the muscles of the jaw, are represented in mammals only by the jugal bone of the zygomatic arch, which lies under the eye.

      In mammals a secondary palate is formed by processes of the maxillary bones and the palatines, with the pterygoid bones reduced in importance. The secondary palate separates the nasal passages from the oral cavity and allows continuous breathing while chewing or suckling.

      Other specializations of the mammalian skull include paired articulating surfaces at the neck (occipital condyles) and an expanded nasal chamber with complexly folded turbinal bones, providing a large area for detection of odours. Eutherians have evolved bony protection for the middle ear (ear, human), the auditory bulla. The development of this structure varies, although a ring-shaped (annular) tympanic bone is always present.

      The bones of the mammalian middle ear are a diagnostic feature of the class. The three auditory ossicles form a series of levers that serve mechanically to increase the amplitude of sound waves reaching the tympanic membrane, or eardrum, produced as disturbances of the air. The innermost bone is the stapes, or “stirrup bone.” It rests against the oval window of the inner ear. The stapes is homologous with the entire stapedial structure of reptiles, which in turn was derived from the hyomandibular arch of primitive vertebrates. The incus, or “anvil,” articulates with the stapes. The incus was derived from the quadrate bone, which is involved in the jaw articulation in reptiles. The malleus, or “hammer,” rests against the tympanic membrane and articulates with the incus. The malleus is the homologue of the reptilian articular bone. The mechanical efficiency of the middle ear has thus been increased by the incorporation of two bones of the reptilian jaw assemblage. In mammals the lower jaw is a single bone, the dentary, which articulates with the squamosal of the skull.

      The limbs and girdles have been greatly modified with locomotor adaptations. The ancestral mammal had well-developed limbs and was five-toed. In each limb there were two distal (outer) elements (radius and ulna in the forelimb; tibia and fibula in the hindlimb) and a single proximal (inner or upper) element (humerus; femur). There were nine bones in the wrist, the carpals, and seven bones in the ankle, the tarsals. The phalangeal formula (the number of phalangeal bones in each digit, numbered from inside outward) is 2-3-3-3-3 in primitive mammals; in primitive reptiles it is 2-3-4-5-3. Modifications in mammalian limbs have involved reduction, loss, or fusion of bones. Loss of the clavicle from the shoulder girdle, reduction in the number of toes, and modifications of tarsal and carpal bones are typical correlates of cursorial locomotion. Scansorial and arboreal groups tend to maintain or emphasize the primitive divergence of the thumb and hallux (the inner toe on the hindfoot).

      Centres of ossification sometimes develop in nonbony connective tissue. Such bones are termed heterotopic or sesamoid elements. The kneecap (patella) is such a bone. Another important bone of this sort, found in many kinds of mammals, is the baculum, or os penis, which occurs as a stiffening rod in the penis of such groups as carnivores, many bats, rodents, some insectivores, and many primates. The os clitoridis is a homologous structure found in females.

Muscles (muscle)

      The muscular system of mammals is generally comparable to that of reptiles. With changes in locomotion, the proportions and specific functions of muscular elements have been altered, but the relationships of these muscles remain essentially the same. Exceptions to this generalization are the muscles of the skin and of the jaw.

      The panniculus carnosus is a sheath of dermal (skin) muscle, developed in many mammals, that allows the movement of the skin independent of the movement of deeper muscle masses. These movements function in such mundane activities as the twitching of the skin to foil insect pests and in some species also are important in shivering, a characteristic heat-producing response to thermal stress. The dermal musculature of the facial region is particularly well developed in primates and carnivores but occurs in other groups as well. Facial mobility allows expression that may be of importance in the behavioral maintenance of interspecific social structure.

      The temporalis muscle is the major adductor (closer) of the reptilian jaw. In mammals the temporalis is divided into a deep temporalis proper and a more superficial masseter muscle. The temporalis attaches to the coronoid process of the mandible (lower jaw) and the temporal bone of the skull. The masseter passes from the angular process of the mandible to the zygomatic arch. The masseter allows an anteroposterior (forward-backward) movement of the jaw and is highly developed in mammals, such as rodents, for which grinding is the important function of the dentition.

Viscera

Digestive system

      The alimentary canal is highly specialized in many kinds of mammals. In general, specializations of the gut accompany herbivorous habits. The intestines of herbivores are typically elongate, and the stomach may also be specialized. Subdivision of the gut allows areas of differing physiological environments for the activities of different sorts of enzymes and symbiotic bacteria, which aid the animal by breaking down certain compounds that are otherwise undigestible. In ruminant artiodactyls (artiodactyl), such as antelopes (antelope), deer, and cattle, the stomach has up to four chambers, each with a particular function in the processing of vegetable material. A cecum is common in many herbivores. The cecum is a blind sac at the far end of the small intestine where complex compounds such as cellulose are acted upon by symbiotic bacteria. The vermiform appendix is a diverticulum of the cecum. The appendix is rich in lymphoid tissue and in many mammals is concerned with defense against toxic bacterial products.

      Hares (hare) and rabbits (rabbit), the sewellel (mountain beaver), or “mountain beaver” (Aplodontia rufa), and some insectivores (insectivore) exhibit a phenomenon of reingestion called coprophagy, in which at intervals specialized fecal pellets are produced. These pellets are eaten and passed through the alimentary canal a second time. Where known to be present, this pattern seems to be obligatory. Reingestion is poorly understood, but it is generally supposed that the process allows the animal to absorb in the upper gut vitamins produced by the microflora of the lower gut but not absorbable there.

Excretory system

      The mammalian kidney is constructed of a large number of functional units called nephrons (nephron). Each nephron consists of a distal tubule, a medial section termed the loop of Henle, a proximal tubule, and a renal corpuscle. The renal corpuscle is a knot of capillaries (glomerulus) surrounded by a sheath (Bowman's capsule). The renal corpuscle is a pressure filter, relying on blood pressure to remove water, ions, and small organic molecules from the blood. Some of the material removed is waste, but some is of value to the organism. The filtrate is sorted by the tubules, and water and needed solutes are resorbed. Resorption is both passive (osmotic) and active (based on ion transport systems). The distal convoluted tubules drain into collecting tubules, which in turn empty into the calyces, or branches, of the renal pelvis, the expanded end of the ureter. The pressure-pump nephron of mammals is so efficient that the renal portal system of lower vertebrates has been completely lost. Mammalian kidneys show considerable variety in structure, relative to the environmental demands on a given species. In particular, desert rodents have long loops of Henle and are able to resorb much water and to excrete a highly concentrated urine. urea is the end product of protein metabolism in mammals, and excretion is therefore called ureotelic.

Reproductive system (reproductive system, animal)

The male tract

      The testes (testis) of mammals descend from the abdominal cavity to lie in a compartmented pouch termed the scrotum. In some species the testes are permanently scrotal, and the scrotum is sealed off from the general abdominal cavity. In other species the testes migrate to the scrotum only during the breeding season. It is thought that the temperature of the abdominal cavity is too high to allow spermatogenesis; the scrotum allows cooling of the testes.

      The transport of spermatozoa (sperm) is comparable to that in reptiles, relying on ducts derived from urinary ducts of earlier vertebrates. Mammalian specialities are the bulbourethral (bulbourethral gland) (or Cowper's) glands, the prostate gland, and the seminal vesicle or vesicular gland. Each of these glands adds secretions to the spermatozoa to form semen, which passes from the body via a canal ( urethra) in the highly vascular, erectile penis. The tip of the penis, the glans, may have a complex morphology and has been used as a taxonomic character in some groups. The penis may be retracted into a sheath along the abdomen or may be pendulous, as in bats and many primates.

The female tract

      The structure of the female reproductive tract is variable. Four types of uterus are generally recognized among placentals, based on the relationship of the uterine horns (branches). A duplex uterus characterizes rodents and rabbits; the uterine horns are completely separated and have separate cervices opening into the vagina. Carnivores have a bipartite uterus, in which the horns are largely separate but enter the vagina by a single cervix. In the bicornate uterus, typical of many ungulates (ungulate), the horns are distinct for less than half their length; the lower part of the uterus is a common chamber, the body. Higher primates have a simplex uterus in which there is no separation between the horns and thus a single chamber.

      The female reproductive tract of marsupials (marsupial) is termed didelphous; the vagina is paired, as are oviducts and uteri. In primitive marsupials there are paired vaginae lateral to the ureters. In more advanced groups, such as kangaroos, the lateral vaginae persist and conduct the migration of spermatozoa, but a medial “pseudovagina” functions as the birth canal.

      Monotremes have paired uteri and oviducts, which empty into a urogenital sinus (cavity) as fluid wastes do. The sinus passes into the cloaca, a common receptacle for reproductive and excretory products.

Circulatory system

      In mammals, as in birds, right and left ventricles of the heart are completely separated, so that pulmonary (pulmonary circulation) (lung) and systemic (body) circulations (systemic circulation) are completely independent. Oxygenated blood arrives in the left atrium from the lungs and passes to the left ventricle, whence it is forced through the aorta to the systemic circulation. Deoxygenated blood from the tissues returns to the right atrium via a large vein, the vena cava, and is pumped to the pulmonary capillary bed through the pulmonary artery.

      Among vertebrates contraction of the heart is myogenic, or generated by muscle; rhythm is inherent in all cardiac muscle, but in myogenic hearts the pacemaker is derived from cardiac tissue. The pacemaker in mammals (and also in birds) is an oblong mass of specialized cells called the sinoatrial node, located in the right atrium near the junction with the venae cavae. A wave of excitation spreads from this node to the atrioventricular node, which is located in the right atrium near the base of the interatrial septum. From this point excitation is conducted along the atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His) and enters the main mass of cardiac tissue along fine branches, the Purkinje fibres. Homeostatic, or stable, control of the heart by neuroendocrine or other agents is mediated through the intrinsic control network of the heart.

      Blood leaves the left ventricle through the aorta. The mammalian aorta is an unpaired structure derived from the left fourth aortic arch of the primitive vertebrate. Birds, on the other hand, retain the right fourth arch.

      The circulatory system forms a complex communication and distribution network to all physiologically active tissues of the body. A constant, copious supply of oxygen is required for sustaining the active, heat-producing (endothermous) physiology of the higher vertebrates. The efficiency of the four-chambered heart is important to this function. Oxygen is transported by specialized red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythrocyte), as in all vertebrates. Packaging the oxygen-bearing pigment hemoglobin in erythrocytes keeps the viscosity of the blood minimal and thereby allows efficient circulation while limiting the mechanical load on the heart. The mammalian erythrocyte is a highly evolved structure; its discoid, biconcave shape allows maximal surface area per unit volume. When mature and functional, mammalian red blood cells are enucleate (lacking a nucleus).

Respiratory system

      Closely coupled with the circulatory system is the ventilatory (breathing) apparatus, the lungs (lung) and associated structures. Ventilation in mammals is unique. The lungs themselves are less efficient than those of birds, for air movement consists of an ebb and flow, rather than a one-way circuit, so a residual volume of air always remains that cannot be expired. Ventilation in mammals is by means of a negative pressure pump made possible by the evolution of a definitive thoracic cavity with a diaphragm.

      The diaphragm is a unique composite structure consisting of (1) the transverse septum (a wall that primitively separates the heart from the general viscera); (2) pleuroperitoneal folds from the body wall; (3) mesenteric folds; and (4) axial muscles inserting on a central tendon, or diaphragmatic aponeurosis.

      The lungs lie in separate airtight compartments called pleural cavities, separated by the mediastinum. As the size of the pleural cavity is increased, the lung is expanded and air flows in passively. Enlargement of the pleural cavity is produced by contraction of the diaphragm or by elevation of the ribs. The relaxed diaphragm domes upward, but when contracted it stretches flat. Expiration is an active movement brought about by contraction of abdominal muscles against the viscera.

      Air typically enters the respiratory passages through the nostrils, where it may be warmed and moistened. It passes above the bony palate and the soft palate and enters the pharynx. In the pharynx the passages for air and food cross. Air enters the trachea, which divides at the level of the lungs into primary bronchi. A characteristic feature of the trachea of many mammals is the larynx. Vocal cords (vocal cord) stretch across the larynx and are vibrated by forced expiration to produce sound. The laryngeal apparatus may be greatly modified for the production of complex vocalizations. In some groups—for example, howler monkeys (howler monkey)—the hyoid apparatus is incorporated into the sound-producing organ, as a resonating chamber.

Nervous and endocrine systems (endocrine system)

      The nervous system and the endocrine system are closely related to one another in their function, for both serve to coordinate activity. The endocrine glands of mammals generally have more complex regulatory functions than do those of lower vertebrates. This is particularly true of the pituitary gland, which supplies hormones that regulate the reproductive cycle. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) initiates the maturation of the ovarian follicle. luteinizing hormone (LH) mediates the formation of the corpus luteum from the follicle following ovulation. prolactin, also a product of the anterior pituitary, stimulates the secretion of milk.

      Control of the pituitary glands is partially by means of neurohumours from the hypothalamus, a part of the forebrain (brain) in contact with the pituitary gland by nervous and circulatory pathways. The hypothalamus is of the utmost importance in mammals, for it integrates stimuli from both internal and external environments, channeling signals to higher centres or into autonomic (autonomic nervous system) pathways.

      The cerebellum of vertebrates is at the anterior end of the hindbrain. Its function is to coordinate motor activities and to maintain posture. In most mammals the cerebellum is highly developed, and its surface may be convoluted to increase its area. The data with which the cerebellum works arrive from proprioceptors (“self-sensors”) in the muscles and from the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear, the latter giving information on position and movements of the head.

      In the vertebrate ancestors of mammals, the cerebral hemispheres were centres for the reception of olfactory stimuli. Vertebrate evolution has favoured an increasing importance of these lobes in the integration of stimuli. Their great development in mammals as centres of association is responsible for the “creative” behaviour of members of the class—i.e., the ability to learn, to adapt as individuals to short-term environmental change through appropriate responses on the basis of previous experience. In vertebrate evolution the gray matter of the cerebrum has moved from a primitive internal position in the hemispheres to a superficial position. The superficial gray matter is termed the pallium. The paleopallium of amphibians has become the olfactory lobes of the higher vertebrates; the dorsolateral surface, or archipallium, has become the mammalian hippocampus. The great neural advance of the mammals lies in the elaboration of the neopallium, which makes up the bulk of the cerebrum. The neopallium is an association centre, the dominant centre of neural function, and is involved in so-called “intelligent” response. By contrast, the highest centre in the avian brain is the corpus striatum, an evolutionary product of the basal nuclei of the amphibian brain. Therefore, the bulk of the complex behaviour of birds is instinctive. The surface of the neopallium tends in some mammals to be greatly expanded by convoluting, forming folds (gyri) between deep grooves (sulci).

Evolution and classification

The evolution of the mammalian condition

      Mammals were derived in the Triassic Period (248 million to 206 million years ago) from members of the reptilian order Therapsida (therapsid). The therapsids, members of the subclass Synapsida (sometimes called the mammal-like reptiles), generally were unimpressive in relation to other reptiles of their time. Synapsids were present in the Carboniferous Period (354 million to 290 million years ago) and are one of the earliest-known reptilian groups. They were the dominant reptiles of the Permian Period (Permian Period) (290 million to 248 million years ago), and, although they were primarily predaceous in habit, the adaptive radiation included herbivorous species as well. In the Mesozoic Era (248 million to 65 million years ago), the most important of the synapsids were the archosaurs (archosaur), or “ruling reptiles,” and the therapsids (therapsid) were, in general, small, active carnivores. Therapsids tended to evolve a specialized heterodont dentition and to improve the mechanics of locomotion by bringing the plane of action of the limbs close to the trunk. A secondary palate was developed, and the temporal musculature was expanded.

      The several features that separate modern reptiles from modern mammals doubtless evolved at different rates. Many attributes of mammals are correlated with their highly active habit—for example, efficient double circulation with a completely four-chambered heart, anucleate and biconcave erythrocytes (erythrocyte), the diaphragm, and the secondary palate (which separates passages for food and air and allows breathing during mastication or suckling). hair for insulation is a correlate of endothermy, the physiological maintenance of individual temperature independent of environmental temperature. Endothermy allows high levels of sustained activity. The unique characteristics of mammals thus would seem to have evolved as a complex interrelated system.

      Because the characteristics that separate reptiles and mammals evolved at different rates and in response to a variety of interrelated conditions, at any point in the period of transition from reptiles to mammals, there were forms that combined various characteristics of both groups. Such a pattern of evolution is termed mosaic and is a common phenomenon in those transitions marking the origin of major new adaptive types. To simplify definitions and to allow the strict delimitation of the Mammalia, some authors have suggested basing the boundary on a single characteristic, the articulation of the jaw between the dentary and squamosal bones and the attendant movement of accessory jawbones to the middle ear as auditory ossicles. The use of a single osteological character allows the placement in a logical classification of numerous fossil species, other mammalian characteristics of which, such as the degree of endothermy and nursing of young and the condition of the internal organs, probably never will be evaluated. It must be recognized, however, that were the advanced therapsids alive today, taxonomists would be hard put to decide which to place in the Reptilia and which in the Mammalia.

Classification

      The higher classification of the class Mammalia is based on consideration of a broad array of characters. Traditionally, evidence from comparative anatomy was of predominant importance, but more recently information from such disciplines as physiology, serology, and genetics has proved useful in considering relationships. Comparative study of living organisms is supplemented by the findings of paleontology. Study of the fossil record adds a historical dimension to knowledge of mammalian relationships. In some cases—the horses, for example—the fossil record has been adequate to allow lineages to be traced in great detail.

      Relative to that of other major vertebrate groups, the fossil record of mammals is good. Fossilization depends upon a great many factors, the most important of which are the structure of the organism, its habitat, and conditions at the time of death. The most common remains of mammals are teeth and the associated bones of the jaw and skull. Enamel covering the typical mammalian tooth is composed of prismatic rods of crystalline apatite and is the hardest tissue in the mammalian body. It is highly resistant to chemical and physical weathering. Because of the abundance of teeth in deposits of fossil mammals, dental characteristics have been stressed in the interpretation of mammalian phylogeny and relationships. Dental features are particularly well suited for this important role in classification because they reflect the broad radiation of mammalian feeding specializations from the primitive predaceous habit.

J. Knox Jones, Jr. David M. Armstrong Don E. Wilson

      This classification is modified from McKenna and Bell (1997), the most recent comprehensive classification of higher categories of mammals; extinct groups are not listed.

Class Mammalia (mammals)

 Almost 5,000 species in 29 orders.

      Prototheria (monotremes (monotreme))

 4 species classified here in 2 orders, but monotremes have traditionally been classified together in a single order, Monotremata.

      Order Tachyglossa (echidnas (echidna))

 3 species in 1 family.

      Order Platypoda ( platypus)

 1 species.

      Metatheria (marsupials (marsupial))

 Nearly 300 species in 7 orders.

      Superorder Australidelphia

 Nearly 200 species.

      Order Diprotodontia (kangaroos (kangaroo), koalas (koala), wombats (wombat), possums (possum), and kin)

 115 or more species in 10 families.

      Order Dasyuromorphia (carnivorous marsupials (dasyurid))

 About 60 species in 2 families, not including the recently extinct Tasmanian wolf (thylacine), sole member of family Thylacinidae.

      Order Peramelemorphia (bandicoots (bandicoot) and bilbies)

 22 species in 2 families.

      Order Notoryctemorphia (marsupial moles (marsupial mole))

 2 species in 1 family.

      Order Microbiotheria (monito)

 1 species.

      Superorder Ameridelphia

 About 80 species in 2 orders.

      Order Didelphimorphia (opossums (opossum))

 70 or more species in 1 family.

      Order Paucituberculata (shrew, or rat, opossums (rat opossum))

 5 species in 1 family.

      Placentalia (placental mammals)

 About 4,700 species in 20 orders.

      Order Rodentia (rodents (rodent))

 More than 2,050 species in 27 families.

      Order Chiroptera (bats (bat))

 Nearly 1,000 species in 18 families.

      Grandorder Lipotyphla (insectivores (insectivore))

 About 450 species in 3 orders.

      Order Soricomorpha (shrews (shrew), moles (mole), and kin)

 About 370 species in 3 families. Moles (family Talpidae) are sometimes classified with hedgehogs in Erinaceomorpha.

      Order Afrosoricida (golden moles (golden mole) and tenrecs (tenrec))

 47 species in 2 families.

      Order Erinaceomorpha (hedgehogs (hedgehog))

 21 species in 1 family.

      Order Primates (primate) (humans (human being), apes (ape), monkeys (monkey), lemurs (lemur), and kin)

 300 or more species in 16 families. Colugos (flying lemur) are sometimes classified as a separate order, Dermoptera.

      Grandorder Ungulata (ungulate) (ungulates (ungulate))

 About 300 species in 5 orders.

      Order Artiodactyla (artiodactyl) (even-toed hoofed ungulates)

 202 species in 10 families, including giraffes, camels, deer, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and kin.

      Order Cetacea (cetacean) (whales (whale), dolphins (dolphin), and porpoises (porpoise))

 80 species in 10 families.

      Order Perissodactyla (perissodactyl) (odd-toed hoofed ungulates)

 15 species in 3 families, including horses, rhinoceroses, tapirs, and kin.

      Uranotherians

 The following three ungulate orders (Sirenia, Proboscidea, and Hyracoidea) are sometimes grouped together as order Uranotheria, as they are more closely related to one another than to other ungulates.

      Order Hyracoidea (hyraxes (hyrax))

 6 species in 1 family.

      Order Sirenia (sirenian) (manatees (manatee) and dugongs (dugong))

 4 species in 2 families.

      Order Proboscidea (proboscidean) (elephants (elephant))

 2 species in 1 family.

      Order Tubulidentata ( aardvark)

 1 species.

      Order Carnivora (carnivore) (carnivores (carnivore))

 About 270 species in 12 families.

      Order Lagomorpha (lagomorph) (pikas (pika) and rabbits (rabbit))

 87 species in 2 families.

      Magnorder Xenarthra (edentates, or xenarthrans (xenarthran))

 29 species in 2 orders.

      Order Cingulata (armadillos (armadillo))

 20 species in 1 family.

      Order Pilosa (anteaters (anteater) and sloths (sloth))

 9 species in 4 families.

      Order Scandentia (tree shrews (tree shrew))

 17 species in 1 family.

      Order Macroscelidea (elephant shrews (elephant shrew))

 15 species in 1 family.

      Order Pholidota (pangolins (pangolin))

 7 species in 1 family.

Additional Reading

General works

David Macdonald (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Mammals, rev. ed., 3 vol. (2001), lavishly illustrates mammalian diversity with photographs and colour drawings and also contains numerous sidebar discussions on specific behaviours and conservation issues. Bernhard Grzimek, Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, 5 vol., trans. from German (1990), is a nontechnical source of information and graphics that also contains tabular data for all species. Ronald M. Nowak, Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th ed., 2 vol. (1999), is a semitechnical work that includes black-and-white photographs of representatives of most living genera.Educational software containing audio and video recordings of mammals includes National Geographic Society (U.S.), Mammals: A Multimedia Encyclopedia (1990); and Discovery Communications, Inc., Mammals (1999).

Region-specific works

Don E. Wilson and Sue Ruff (eds.), The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals (1999), contains complete information and colour photographs of all species in North America. Louise H. Emmons and François Feer, Neotropical Rainforest Mammals: A Field Guide, 2nd ed. (1997), describes each of the species found in the tropical forests of Central and South America. Priscilla Barret and David W. Macdonald, Mammals of Europe (2002), is an illustrated field guide that includes distribution maps and describes ways of recognizing species by sight, sound, tracks, and other evidence. Jonathan Kingdon, The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals (1997, reprinted with corrections, 2001), provides information on Africa's 1,100 mammalian species. G.B. Corbet and J.E. Hill, The Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A Systematic Review (1992), treats each of the 1,000-plus species found in both continental and insular Southeast Asia. K.K. Gurung and Raj Singh, Field Guide to the Mammals of the Indian Subcontinent (also published as Mammals of the Indian Subcontinent and Where to Watch Them, 1996), provides information on the region's protected reserves and concisely describes the species found in them. Zhang Yongzu, Distribution of Mammalian Species in China (1997); and Edward Osmond, Animals of Central Asia (1967), are two of the few broad treatments written in English for this part of the world. Ronald Strahan (ed.), Mammals of Australia, rev. ed. (1995, reissued 1998); and Nick Garbutt, Mammals of Madagascar (1999), cover each of these islands' unique and often peculiar fauna.

Advanced works

The most complete classification to the species level is Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn M. Reeder, Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, 2nd ed. (1993). The most recent complete classification of mammals to the generic level is Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell, Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level (1997). A thorough treatment of the families of living mammals is Sydney Anderson and J. Knox Jones, Jr. (eds.), Orders and Families of Recent Mammals of the World (1984). Widely used textbooks in mammalogy are Terry A. Vaughan, James M. Ryan, and Nicholas J. Czaplewski, Mammalogy, 4th ed. (2000); and George A. Feldhamer et al. (eds.), Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, and Ecology (1999). Scientific journals that publish papers dealing exclusively with mammals are Journal of Mammalogy and Mammalia, both issued quarterly.Summaries of specialized topics in mammalogy include Virginia Hayssen, Ari van Tienhoven, and Ans van Tienhoven, Asdell's Patterns of Mammalian Reproduction: A Compendium of Species-Specific Data, rev. ed. (1993); Devra G. Kleiman et al. (eds.), Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques (1996); David McFarland (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Animal Behavior (1981; also published as The Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour, 1981, reprinted with corrections, 1987); John Alcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 7th ed. (2001); and Thomas E. Tomasi and Teresa H. Horton (eds.), Mammalian Energetics: Interdisciplinary Views of Metabolism and Reproduction (1992). The evolution and morphology of early mammals are reviewed in Donald E. Savage and Donald E. Russell, Mammalian Paleofaunas of the World (1983); and classic publications on the evolution of major mammalian groups are Alfred Sherwood Romer, Vertebrate Paleontology, 3rd ed. (1966), and Vertebrate Paleontology: Notes and Comments (1968).Don E. Wilson

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