magic

/maj"ik/, n.

1. the art of producing illusions as entertainment by the use of sleight of hand, deceptive devices, etc.; legerdemain; conjuring: to pull a rabbit out of a hat by magic.

2. the art of producing a desired effect or result through the use of incantation or various other techniques that presumably assure human control of supernatural agencies or the forces of nature. Cf. contagious magic, imitative magic, sympathetic magic.

3. the use of this art: Magic, it was believed, could drive illness from the body.

4. the effects produced: the magic of recovery.

5. power or influence exerted through this art: a wizard of great magic.

6. any extraordinary or mystical influence, charm, power, etc.: the magic in a great name; the magic of music; the magic of spring.

7. (cap.) the U.S. code name for information from decrypting machine-enciphered Japanese wireless messages before and during World War II.

adj.

8. employed in magic: magic spells; magic dances; magic rites.

9. mysteriously enchanting; magical: magic beauty.

10. of, pertaining to, or due to magic.

11. producing the effects of magic; magical: a magic touch.

[1350-1400; ME magik(e) witchcraft < LL magica, L magice < Gk magiké, n. use of fem. of magikós. See MAGUS, -IC]

Syn. 2. enchantment. MAGIC, NECROMANCY, SORCERY, WITCHCRAFT imply producing results through mysterious influences or unexplained powers. MAGIC may have glamorous and attractive connotations; the other terms suggest the harmful and sinister. MAGIC is an art employing some occult force of nature: A hundred years ago television would have seemed to be magic.

NECROMANCY is an art of prediction based on alleged communication with the dead (it is called "the black art," because Greek nekrós, dead, was confused with Latin niger, black): Necromancy led to violating graves. SORCERY, originally divination by casting lots, came to mean supernatural knowledge gained through the aid of evil spirits, and often used for evil ends: spells and charms used in sorcery. WITCHCRAFT esp. suggests a malign kind of magic, often used against innocent victims: Those accused of witchcraft were executed.

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Use of means (such as charms or spells) believed to have supernatural power over natural forces.

It constitutes the core of many religious systems and plays a central social role in many nonliterate cultures. Magic is often distinguished from religion as being more impersonal and mechanical and emphasizing technique. Its techniques are usually regarded as means to specific ends (an enemy's defeat, rainfall, etc.), although another view ascribes a more symbolic, expressive character to such activity. Thus, a rainmaking ritual may both elicit rainfall and stress the symbolic importance of rain and the agricultural activities associated with it. Both the magician and the magical rite are typically surrounded by taboos, purification procedures, and other activities that draw the participants into the magical sphere. Strains of magic in Western tradition, formerly associated with heretics, alchemists, witches, and sorcerers, persist in modern times in the activities of satanists and others. The art of entertaining by performing apparently magical feats (sometimes called conjuring) relies on the use of sleight of hand and other means. See also shaman, vodun, witchcraft and sorcery.

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▪ supernatural phenomenon

Introduction

      a concept used to describe a mode of rationality or way of thinking that looks to invisible forces to influence events, effect change in material conditions, or present the illusion of change. Within the Western tradition, this way of thinking is distinct from religious or scientific modes; however, such distinctions and even the definition of magic are subject to wide debate.

Nature and scope

      Practices classified as magic include divination, astrology, incantations, alchemy, sorcery, spirit mediation, and necromancy. The term magic is also used colloquially in Western popular culture to refer to acts of conjuring and sleight of hand for entertainment. The purpose of magic is to acquire knowledge, power, love, or wealth; to heal or ward off illness or danger; to guarantee productivity or success in an endeavour; to cause harm to an enemy; to reveal information; to induce spiritual transformation; to trick; or to entertain. The effectiveness of magic is often determined by the condition and performance of the magician, who is thought to have access to unseen forces and special knowledge of the appropriate words and actions to manipulate those forces.

      Phenomena associated or confused with magic include forms of mysticism, medicine, paganism, heresy, witchcraft, shamanism, voodoo (Vodou), and superstition. Magic is sometimes divided into the "high" magic of the intellectual elite, bordering on science, and the "low" magic of common folk practices. A distinction is also made between "black" magic, used for nefarious purposes, and "white" magic, ostensibly used for beneficial purposes. Although these boundaries are often unclear, magical practices have a sense of "otherness" because of the supernatural (supernaturalism) power that is believed to be channeled through the practitioner, who is a marginalized or stigmatized figure in some societies and a central one in others.

Elements of magic

Spells (spell)

      The performance of magic involves words (e.g, spells, incantations, or charms) and symbolic numbers (numerology) that are thought to have innate power, natural or man-made material objects, and ritual actions performed by the magician or other participants. A spell or incantation is believed to draw power from spiritual agencies to accomplish magic. Knowledge of spells or symbolic numbers is often secret (occult), and the possessor of such knowledge can be either greatly revered or feared. In some cases, the spell is the most highly regarded component of the magical rite or ceremony. The Trobriand Islanders (Trobriander) of Melanesia, for example, regarded using the right words in the right way as essential to the efficacy of the rite being performed. Among the Maori of New Zealand the power of words is thought to be so important that mistakes in public recitations are believed to cause disasters for individuals or the community. Moreover, like the medieval European charms that used archaic languages and parts of the Latin liturgy, spells often employ an esoteric vocabulary that adds to the respect accorded rites. Belief in the transformative power of words is also common in many religions. Shamans, spirit mediums, and mystics, for example, repeat specific sounds or syllables to achieve an ecstatic state of contact with spiritual forces or an enlightened state of consciousness. Even modern magic for entertainment retains a residual of the spell with its use of the term abracadabra.

Material

      Much anthropological literature refers to the objects used in magic as "medicines (medicine)," hence the popular use of the term medicine man for magician. These medicines include herbs, animal parts, gemstones, sacred objects, or props used in performance and are thought to be potent in themselves or empowered by incantations or rituals. In some cases, medicines that are intended to heal are physiologically effective; for example, the poppy is used widely as an anesthetic, willow bark is used by some Chinese as an analgesic, and garlic and onions were used as antibiotics in medieval Europe. Other medicines that are meant to cause harm, such as toad extracts and bufadienolides, are, in fact, known poisons. Other materials have a symbolic relationship to the intended outcome, as with divination from animal parts. In scapulamancy (divination from a sheep shoulder bone), for example, the sheep's bone reflects the macrocosmic forces of the universe. In sorcery a magician may employ something belonging to the intended victim (e.g., hair, nail parings, or a piece of clothing) as part of the ritual. The rite itself may be symbolic, as with the drawing of protective circles in which to call up spirits, the sprinkling of water on the ground to make rain, or the destruction of a wax image to harm a victim. Plants or other objects can also symbolize desired outcomes: in rites to ensure a canoe's speed, the Trobriand use light vegetable leaves to represent the ease with which the craft will glide over the water; the Zande of The Sudan place a stone in a tree fork to postpone the setting of the sun; and many Balkan peoples once swallowed gold to cure jaundice.

Rites (ritual) and condition of the performer

      Because magic is based on performance, ritual and the magician's knowledge and ability play a significant role in its efficacy. The performance of magic also presumes an audience, either the spiritual forces addressed, the patient-client, or the community. Both the magician and the rite itself are concerned with the observance of taboos and the purification of the participants. Magicians, like priests presiding over religious rituals, observe restrictions of diet or sexual activity to demarcate the rite from ordinary and profane activities and to invest it with sanctity. Modern magicians' success with entertaining audiences is dependant primarily on their performance skills in manipulating material objects to create an illusion.

Functions

      Foremost among the many roles magic plays are its “instrumental” and “expressive” functions. Based in the attempt to influence nature or human behaviour, magic's instrumental function is measured by its efficacy in achieving the desired result. Anthropologists identify three main types of instrumental magic: the productive, the protective, and the destructive. Productive magic is employed to solicit a successful outcome from human labour or nature, such as bountiful hunt or harvest or good weather. Protective magic aims to defend an individual or community from the vagaries of nature and the evil of others. The use of amulets to ward off contagious diseases or the recitation of charms before a journey are examples of this protective function. Lastly, destructive magic, or sorcery, is intended to harm others, often is motivated by envy, and is socially disruptive. Consequently, the use of countermagic against sorcery may relieve some social tension within a community.

      Magic's expressive function results from the symbolic and social meanings attached to its practices, though its performers may not necessarily be aware of this function. Magic can provide a sense of group identity through shared rituals that give power or strength to members. At the same time, it can isolate the magician as a special person within or on the margins of society. Magic can also serve as a creative outlet or form of entertainment. It is, therefore, inseparable from the total system of thought, belief, and practice in a given society.

Definitional issues: magic, religion, and science

      The term magic cannot be defined in isolation because of its broad parameters, important role in many societies, and interactions with related phenomena. Magic is a generic label used by outsiders (theoretically, objective observers) to describe specific practices in societies in which this word or its conceptual equivalent may not even exist. As a result, diverse phenomena are lumped together on the assumption that they operate in the same way. This artificial construct of magic also exists only in relation to what it is not—primarily, religion and science as alternate modes of rationality. Such definitions of magic privilege cultures with a strong scientific orientation and stigmatize those that practice magic instead of religion. Consequently, defining magic and identifying magicians requires an understanding of the cultural contexts in which these labels are used.

      Although magic has an ambiguous relationship with Western religion and science, it is rooted in the main institutional, social, and intellectual traditions in Western history. Moreover, modern attempts to arrive at a universal definition of magic reflect a Western bias. In particular, 18th- and 19th-century views on cultural and historical evolution set magic apart from religion and science. In a model developed by the British anthropologist Sir James Frazer (Frazer, Sir James George) (1854–1941), magic is characterized as an early stage in human development, superseded first by religion and then by science. The debate over the relationship between magic, religion, and science that dominated much of the discussion about magic throughout the 20th century is evident in the fieldwork of anthropologists, the theories of sociologists of religion, and critiques by postmodernists. Consequently, research in comparative religions, history, and anthropology in the second half of the 20th century moved away from the evolutionary model toward more context-sensitive interpretations, while other studies developed new models for cross-cultural comparison. Nonetheless, the magic-religion-science model retains considerable interpretive power, and the dichotomies used to distinguish magic from religion or science are pervasive in popular discourse.

Magic and religion

      Magic continues to be widely perceived as an archaic worldview, a form of superstition lacking the intrinsic spiritual value of religion or the rational logic of science. Religion, according to seminal anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (Tylor, Sir Edward Burnett) (1832–1917), involves a direct, personal relationship between humans and spiritual forces; in religion's highest form, that relationship is with a personal, conscious omnipotent spiritual being. Magic, on the other hand, is characterized as external, impersonal, and mechanical, involving technical acts of power. Magic seeks to manipulate spiritual powers, while religious prayer supplicates spiritual forces, a distinction explored by Bronislaw Malinowski (Malinowski, Bronisław) (1884–1942) in his work on the Trobriand Islanders. Moreover, according to Émile Durkheim (Durkheim, Émile) (1858–1917), religion is communal because its adherents, bound together by shared belief, form a church. Magic, on the other hand, involves no permanent ties between believers and only temporary ties between individuals and the magicians who perform services for them. The fieldwork of A.R. Radcliffe-Brown (Radcliffe-Brown, A.R.) (1881–1955) among the Andaman Islanders, however, has made clear that magic, too, may have a communal dimension.

Magic and science

      Although magic is similar in some respects to science and technology, it approaches efficacy (the ability to produce a desired material outcome) differently. Magic, like religion, is concerned with invisible, nonempirical forces; yet, like science, it also makes claims to efficacy. Unlike science, which measures outcomes through empirical and experimental means, magic invokes a symbolic cause-effect relationship. Moreover, like religion and unlike science, magic has an expressive function in addition to its instrumental function. Magical rainmaking strategies, for example, may or may not be efficacious, but they serve the expressive purpose of reinforcing the social importance of rain and farming to a community.

Subcategories of magic

      The view of magic as pre-religious or nonscientific has contributed both to subtle distinctions between magic and other practices and to the recognition of subcategories of magic. Notably, anthropologists distinguish magic from witchcraft, defining the former as the manipulation of an external power by mechanical or behavioral means to affect others and the latter as an inherent personal quality that allows the witch to achieve the same ends. However, the line between the two is not always clear, and in some parts of the world an individual may operate in both ways. Similarly, the distinction between "black" magic and "white" magic is obscure since both practices often use the same means and are performed by the same person. Scholars also distinguish between magic and divination, whose purpose is not to influence events but to predict or understand them. Nevertheless, the mystical power of diviners may be thought to be the same as that behind magic. Ultimately, despite these distinctions and the variety of unique roles that practitioners play in their own societies, most end up classified under the universal term magician. Often even religious figures such as priests, shamans, and prophets are identified as magicians because many of their activities include acts defined as "magical" by modern scholars.

      In the end, distinctions between magic and religion or science are harder to make in practice than in theory; scholars therefore use labels such as magico-religious to describe activities or persons who cross this artificial dividing line. Similarly, the boundary between magic and science is permeable, since the modern scientific method (observation and experimentation) evolved from forms of scientific magic such as alchemy and astrology. Thus, the evolutionary model, which draws sharp distinctions between magic, religion, and science, cannot account for the essential similarity between various phenomena. Moreover, dichotomies that define magic in relation to other phenomena are reductionist, often ignoring the meaningful structures and beliefs that inform these practices in their native context.

Conceptual history

      The claim that magic is found in all human societies rests on a definition that is rooted in Western cultural assumptions, and both these assumptions and the use of the term magic have undergone change over time and place. Consequently, to understand beliefs and practices in other societies that appear similar to European magic, it is necessary to apply the context-sensitive and comparative methods that become increasingly important in the study of anthropology, history, and religion.

History of magic in Western worldviews

      The Western conception of magic is rooted in the ancient Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman heritage. The tradition took further shape in northern Europe (Europe, history of) during the medieval and early modern period before spreading to other parts of the globe through European exploration and colonialism after 1500. The view of Western civilization as a story of progress includes the magic-religion-science paradigm that traces the "rise" and "decline" of magic and then religion, along with the final triumph of science—a model now challenged by scholars. Moreover, the very origins of the word magic raise questions about ways in which one person's religion is another person's magic, and vice versa.

Ancient Mediterranean world

      The root word for magic (Greek: mageia; Latin: magia) derives from the Greek (Greek religion) term magoi, which refers to a Median tribe in Persia and their religion, Zoroastrianism. The Greco-Roman (Roman religion) tradition held that magicians possessed arcane or secret knowledge and the ability to channel power from or through any of the polytheistic deities, spirits, or ancestors of the ancient pantheons. Indeed, many of the traditions associated with magic in the classical world derive from a fascination with ancient Middle Eastern (Middle Eastern religion) beliefs and are concerned with a need for countermagic against sorcery. Spells uttered by sorcerers and addressed to gods, to fire, to salt, and to grain are recorded from Mesopotamia (Mesopotamian religion) and Egypt (Egyptian religion). These texts also reveal the practice of necromancy, invoking the spirits of the dead, who were regarded as the last defense against evil magic. Greco-Egyptian papyruses from the 1st to the 4th century AD, for example, include magical recipes involving animals and animal substances, along with instructions for the ritual preparations necessary to ensure the efficacy of the spells. divination took many forms—from the Etruscan art of haruspicina (reading entrails of animal sacrifices) to the Roman practice of augury (interpreting the behaviour of birds)—and was widely practiced as a means of determining propitious times to engage in specific activities; it often played a role in political decision making. Ancient Roman society was particularly concerned with sorcery and countersorcery, contests associated with the development of competitive new urban classes whose members had to rely on their own efforts in both material and magical terms to defeat their rivals and attain success.

      Ambivalence toward magic carried into the early Christian (Christianity) era of the Roman Empire and its subsequent heirs in Europe and Byzantium. In the Gospel According to Matthew (Matthew, Gospel According to), the Magi who appeared at the birth of Jesus Christ were both Persian foreigners of Greco-Roman conception and wise astrologers. As practitioners of a foreign religion they seemed to validate the significance of Jesus' birth. However, magus, the singular form of magi, has a negative connotation in the New Testament in the account of Simon Magus (Acts 8:9–25), the magician who attempted to buy the miraculous power of the disciples of Christ. In medieval European Christian legends, his story developed into a dramatic contest between true religion, with its divine miracles, and false demonic magic, with its illusions. Nonetheless, belief in the reality of occult powers and the need for Christian counterrituals persisted, for example, in the Byzantine belief in the " evil eye" cast by the envious, which was thought to be demonically inspired and from which Christians needed protection through divine remedies.

Medieval Europe (Middle Ages)

      During the period of Europe's (Europe, history of) conversion to Christianity (c. 300–1050), magic was strongly identified with paganism, the label Christian missionaries used to demonize the religious beliefs of Celtic, Germanic, and Scandinavian peoples. Church leaders simultaneously appropriated and Christianized native practices and beliefs. For example, medicinal remedies found in monastic manuscripts combined Christian formulas and rites with Germanic folk rituals to empower natural ingredients to cure ailments caused by poisons, elf-attack, demonic possession, or other invisible forces. Another Christianized practice, bibliomancy (divination through the random selection of a biblical text), was codified in the 11th-century Divinatory Psalter of the Orthodox Slavs. Although coopted and condemned by Christian leaders of this period, magic survived in a complex relationship with the dominant religion. Similar acculturation processes occurred in later conversions in Latin America and Africa, where indigenous beliefs in spiritual forces and magical practices coexist, sometimes uneasily, with Christian theology.

      In high medieval Europe (c. 1050–1350), the battle between religion and magic occurred as the struggle against heresy, the church's label for perverted Christian belief. Magicians, like heretics, were believed to distort or abuse Christian rites to do the devil's work. By the 15th century, belief in the reality of human pacts with the Devil and the magical powers acquired through them contributed to the persecution of those accused of actually harming others with their magic. Also in the high Middle Ages the demonization of Muslims and Jews contributed to the suspicion of the "other.” Marginal groups were routinely accused of ritual baby-killing. In lurid accounts of the “blood libel,” Jews were charged with stealing Christian children for sacrifice. Similar accusations were made against witches by Christians and against Christians by the ancient Romans.

      Although magic was widely condemned during the Middle Ages, often for political or social reasons, the proliferation of magic formulas and books from the period indicates its widespread practice in various forms. Richard Kieckhefer has identified two major categories of magic: "low" magic includes charms (prayers, blessings, adjurations), protective amulets and talismans, sorcery (the misuse of medical and protective magic), divination and popular astrology, trickery, and medical magic through herbs and animals; and "high," or intellectual, magic, includes more learned forms of astrology, astral magic, alchemy, books of secrets, and necromancy. There is also evidence of courtly interest in magic, particularly that involving automatons and gemstones. Moreover, magic served as a literary device of the time, notably the presence of Merlin in the Arthurian romances (Arthurian legend). Although medieval European magic retained its sense of otherness by borrowing from Jewish practices and Arabic scientific sources such as the astral magic manual Picatrix, it also drew from the mainstream Christian tradition. necromancy, for example, used Latin Christian rites and formulas to compel the spirits of the dead to obey.

Late medieval and early modern Europe

      By the late Middle Ages (c. 1350–1450) and into the early modern period (c. 1450–1750), magic was regarded as part of a widespread and dangerously antisocial demonic cult that included the condemned practices of sorcery, necromancy, and witchcraft. Accused heretics, witches, and magicians were subject to inquisitions designed to uncover these cult connections and to destroy the means of transmission (e.g., the burning of condemned books and/or the “guilty” parties). The influential manual Malleus maleficarum (“The Hammer of Witches,” 1486) by Jacob Sprenger and Henry Krämer describes witchcraft in great detail (e.g, the witches' sabbath, a midnight assembly in fealty to the Devil); moreover, this oft reprinted volume is responsible for the misogynist association of witchcraft with women that becomes the dominant characteristic in the early modern period. This conspiracy theory of demonic magic contributed to the early modern "witch craze” that occurred at a time of growing tension between magic, religion, and nascent science.

      Nonetheless, despite the persecution of “black” magic and its alleged practitioners, forms of "white" magic persisted in Europe on the boundaries between magic, mysticism, and emerging empiricism. During the Renaissance there was renewed interest in ancient Near Eastern practices, neoplatonic mysticism, and Arabic texts on alchemy and astrology. Pico della Mirandola (Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, Conte Di Concordia) sought hidden knowledge in Jewish Kabbala, a mystical practice for unlocking the divine secrets contained in written and unwritten Hebrew Scriptures. Marsilio Ficino (Ficino, Marsilio) studied astral magic and the power of music to channel cosmic influences, while Giordano Bruno (Bruno, Giordano) explored the mystical traditions of Hermeticism, based on works of the legendary Alexandrian prophet of the 1st–3rd century Hermes Trismegistus. Although generally tolerated because their practices were perceived to be within the main Judaic and Christian Hermetic tradition, practitioners of alchemy were sometimes considered to be evil magicians who acquired their knowledge through a pact with the Devil (as in the Faust legends). When magical activities of intellectual dilettantes proved, or appeared, to be antisocial, the results were more often put down to simple trickery—as in the case of the 18th-century charlatan Alessandro, conte di Cagliostro (Giuseppe Balsamo).

European traditions and the modern world

      The European fascination with the magical traditions of the ancient Middle East was extended to those of East and South Asia when Europeans made contact with these regions in the early modern period. Orientalism, as literary and cultural critic Edward Said (Said, Edward) labeled this phenomenon, has its roots in the sense of the "other" found in the earliest definitions of magic (notably the Magi as Persian foreigners) and in the Renaissance penchant for Egyptian, Hebrew, and Arabic materials. Intrigued by the exotic otherness of Eastern societies, modern European philosophers experimented with the progressive model of magic-science-religion. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), for example, viewed 19th-century India as an immature civilization, in part because Hindu consciousness lacked the categories of logic Hegel valued.

      A popular “scientific” worldview prevails in modern Western societies that suggests the triumph of human reason. Enlightenment rationalism and the Scientific Revolution—ironically rooted in Renaissance experiments in magic and motivated in part by Reformation pragmatism—led to the modern triumph of scientific reasoning over magic, evident, for example, in 19th-century exposés of magic tricksters as charlatans. Notably, spirit rappers, mediums who “conversed” with spirits who replied by knocking on a table, were easily exposed as the ones doing the knocking. Modern popular magic has appeared in the realm of entertainment, generally as a plot device in stories and movies, as tricks aimed at children, and as mysterious sleight-of-hand illusions in magic shows that delight the audience's sense perceptions and challenge their reasoning ability. The fascination with occult knowledge and mystical powers derived from nonmainstream or foreign sources persists in the West in astrological charts in newspapers, theories of interplanetary aliens and government conspiracies to hide them, occult rituals in some New Age religions, and interest in traditional practices that have an esoteric flavour, such as feng shui (geomancy, the traditional Asian practice of aligning graves, homes, and temples with cosmic forces). This persistence suggests, in part, the impact of globalization on postmodern worldviews challenging the dominance of a strictly scientific mode of rationality.

Globalization of the magic concept

      Western conceptions of magic, religion, and science were exported to other parts of the globe in the modern period by traders, conquerors, missionaries, anthropologists, and historians. European travelers in the 16th–19th centuries functioned as primitive ethnographers whose written observations are invaluable historical resources. However, their accounts, often coloured by their Judeo-Christian assumptions about religion versus magic, illuminate how indigenous peoples were treated as "children" to be educated or, in the case of some conquerors, as subhuman races to be enslaved. During the latter part of the 19th century, anthropologists began to analyze magic and its part in the evolution of the world's religions. Their work was characterized by a fundamental distinction rooted in the magic-religion-science evolutionary model: the world is divided between historical, literate urbanized cultures, or “civilizations” (for example, the ancient traditions of East and South Asia) and nonliterate, tribal archaic, or "primitive," societies (such as those found in parts of Africa, the Americas, and Oceania). Historians viewed complex societies characterized by urbanization, centralization, and written traditions as more advanced and measured their progress as civilizations according to the evolutionary model. Nomadic, tribal, agricultural, or nonurbanized societies with strong oral traditions were often perceived by early European observers as developmentally stagnant people without history. While these views are no longer accepted, their residual effect is still felt in the way magic, religion, and science are conceptualized. Anthropologists of religion traditionally distinguished between the “religion” practiced by the world's main faiths, which often marginalize magic as superstition, and the beliefs of small nonliterate societies in which “magic” may in fact be central to religious belief. Here the distinction between religion and magic seems unfounded. Indeed, as some postcolonial societies endeavour to distance themselves from Western logic, ancient religious traditions are pivotal to the reassertion of cultural identity and autonomy. West African vodun (voodoo (Vodou)), which spread to the Caribbean, the Americas, and elsewhere, is one example of an indigenous religious practice that is tied to cultural identity in art, music, and literature and used subversively as a rallying point for postcolonial resistance to Western modes of rationality.

World cultures

      The Western concept of magic as a set of beliefs, values, and practices that are not fully religious or scientific does not find its equivalent in non-Western languages and cultures; conversely, concepts found in other cultures may be untranslatable into English or a Western framework. For example, Hawaiian historian David Malo (c. 1793–1853), discussing Christianity and traditional Hawaiian religion, found hoˋomana (to make, to do, or to imbue with supernatural, divine, or miraculous power) the closest translation for English religion, contrary to its characterization by Westerners as a magical component in Polynesian beliefs. Furthermore, a modern Japanese dictionary uses a transliteration, majikku, for the English word magic. It also uses the English word magic to translate several Japanese words beginning with ma-, the kanji character representing a vengeful spirit of the dead (in East Asian folk belief, an ancestor not cared for properly; in Buddhist cosmology, an evil demonic figure). While superficially similar to the Christian notion of magic as demonic, the cosmologies regarding these demons differ significantly. Moreover, ma- does not have the range of meanings that magic has in Western thought.

      On the other hand, specific practices identified as magic—e.g., divination, spells, spirit mediation—are found worldwide, even if the word magic is not. For example, in China various practices such as divination through oracle bones, offerings to dead ancestors, and feng shui can be classified as either magic, religion, or science, but it is questionable whether these categories have any validity in Chinese thought; rather these so-called magical practices are an intrinsic part of the worldviews expressed in China's main religious and philosophical systems (ancestor worship, Confucianism, Taoism (Daoism), and Buddhism). In modern China, some communities deal with crisis by combining seemingly contradictory practices—including supplication and coercion of gods, appeals to ancestral spirits, folk cures, and modern inoculations. Such syncretism has been common in East Asia; notably, in 6th-century Japan, the native nature worship of Shinto (Shintō) blended with imported forms of Buddhism without the kind of conflict that occurred during the conversion of Europe to Christianity. In modern East Asia, conflict between magic, religion, and science introduced by Western concepts of magic occurs alongside a strong tradition of syncretism that blends empirical science with practices that Westerners often perceive as unscientific magic or religious superstition.

      Asian religious traditions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism teach that material life is illusory. This mode of rationality focuses on understanding the principles and spiritual forces that lie behind physical experience. Consequently, adepts in these traditions who have achieved a level of understanding of these cosmic forces often appear to have the ability to manipulate physical reality in ways that seem magical. The point of demonstrations by street magicians and snake charmers in India is to show the illusory quality of material reality in order to draw attention to the universal, timeless, and cosmic. Purposeful deception in magic is thus used to illustrate the deceptiveness of human apprehensions of reality. The mystical component of magic is also clear in Tantra and other esoteric and nonconformist sects of Hinduism or Buddhism, which use mystical words, symbols, and diagrams in their rituals. Whether these practices are magic or religion depends upon one's point of view.

Postcolonial points of views

      Anthropological (cultural anthropology) and sociological (sociology) studies of modern nonliterate societies in the Americas, Oceania, and Africa have given rise to new global terminology. Beginning in the second half of the 20th century, some sociologists and anthropologists turned the tables on earlier scholarship by applying the methods used for examining extant nonliterate (“primitive”) societies to literate, urban societies of the past, which previously had been evaluated by the criteria reserved for the study of “civilizations.” For example, the phenomenon of shamanism and the word shaman, as defined by Mircea Eliade (Eliade, Mircea) (1907–86) in his exploration of ecstatic states, has been applied not only to “primitive” cultures but to premodern Christian Europe. Likewise the term mana (“power”), appropriated from Melanesian and Polynesian cultures by Émile Durkheim (Durkheim, Émile) and Marcel Mauss (Mauss, Marcel) (1872–1950), has been widely applied to magical practices in historical civilizations, including that of classical Rome.

History of magic theories

Foundations

      Because of the impact of anthropological theory on the study of magic, its development and history bear reviewing. The first important figure in this line of inquiry was Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (Tylor, Sir Edward Burnett), whose Primitive Culture (1871) regarded magic as a "pseudo-science" in which the "savage" postulated a direct cause-effect relationship between the magical act and the desired outcome. Tylor regarded magic as "one of the most pernicious delusions that ever vexed mankind," but he did not approach it as superstition or heresy. Instead he studied it as a phenomenon based on the "symbolic principle of magic," a scheme of thought founded on a rational process of analogy. He also realized that magic and religion are parts of a total system of thought. Although he believed that magic and animistic beliefs became less prevalent in the later stages of history, he did not view magic and religion as alternative stages in the evolutionary development of mankind.

      That conclusion would be left for Sir James Frazer (Frazer, Sir James George) in The Golden Bough (1890), in which he ordered magic, religion, and science in a grandiose evolutionary scheme. Magic preceded religion because, according to Frazer, the former was logically more simple. This notion, however, was a based on his erroneous assumption that the Australian Aborigines, examples of a “primitive” people, believed in magic but not in religion.

Sociological theories

      Another line of theorists, including sociologists Durkheim and Mauss, widened the discussion by defining magic in terms of its social function. In The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912), Durkheim argued that magical rites involved the manipulation of sacred objects by the magician on behalf of individual clients; the socially cohesive significance of religious rites proper (by priests) was therefore largely lacking. Durkheim's views were furthered by A.R. Radcliffe-Brown in the (Radcliffe-Brown, A.R.) The Andaman Islanders (1922) and to a lesser extent by Malinowski (Malinowski, Bronisław) in Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922) and Magic, Science and Religion (1925). Radcliffe-Brown posited that the function of magic was to express the social importance of the desired event, while Malinowski regarded magic as directly and essentially concerned with the psychological needs of the individual.

      Subsequent studies of the working of systems of magic, especially in Africa and Oceania, built upon the work of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown along with that of Sir Edward Evans-Pritchard (Evans-Pritchard, Sir Edward) in Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande (1937). In his seminal book, Evans-Pritchard demonstrated that magic is an integral part of religion and culture used to explain events that cannot otherwise be understood or controlled. The Zande of the Sudan accept magic, together with witchcraft and oracles, as a normal part of nature and society. These phenomena form a closed logical system, each part of which buttresses the other and provides a rational system of causation.

Psychological theories

      These anthropological and sociological approaches focused on magic as a social phenomenon, but the role of individual psychology was implicit in the views of Tylor and Frazer and brought out more in the work of Malinowski, who frequently offered psychological explanations for belief in magic. Sigmund Freud (Freud, Sigmund)'s influential view of magic as the earliest phase in the development of religious thought (Totem and Taboo, 1918) followed Frazer's model and posited an essential similarity between the thought of children, neurotics, and “savages.” According to Freud, all three assumed that wish or intention led automatically to the fulfillment of the desired end. This reductionist view, based on outmoded notions about "primitive" cultures, was revised as the result of new field research. Although Claude Lévi-Strauss (Lévi-Strauss, Claude) also initially equated these three groups, he later modified this view in his analysis of the work of Mauss, which focuses on the structural linguistics of terms such as mana that are deployed in the study of magic. His work, therefore, laid the foundation for later deconstructions of the concept of magic.

Comparative religions

      The rise of the study of comparative religion led to new theories that accounted for both world religions and localized belief systems. The work of Eliade (Eliade, Mircea), including his study of shamanism, is an important and influential example of this approach, as is that of Ninian Smart, who devised a six-dimensional (experiential, mythic, doctrinal, ethical, ritual, and social) worldview analysis for cross-cultural comparison that can be applied to different belief systems, whether called magic or religion. Likewise, Judaic scholar Jacob Neusner suggested the neutral rubric "modes of rationality" to avoid pejorative comparisons between systems of thought otherwise classified as magic, religion, science, or philosophy. The broader base established by the comparative religions approach avoids the difficulties of distinguishing urban literate from nonurban nonliterate societies and the perils of the magic-religion-science progression.

Postmodern dialogue

      Postmodern scholarship continues to challenge older anthropological notions. The work of such anthropologists as Victor Turner (1920–83), Clifford Geertz (Geertz, Clifford), and Marshall Sahlins has had a wide impact on the social sciences and humanities. Central to the challenge to the traditional magic-religion-science paradigm was Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality (1990), in which Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah deconstructs the European history of the progress model and the work of anthropologists from Tylor forward. Other anthropologists have questioned the model of the rise and decline of magic in European thought articulated in Keith Thomas's groundbreaking Religion and the Decline of Magic (1971), a study of early modern England, and Valerie Flint's The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe (1991). Notably, anthropologist Hildred Geertz challenged Thomas's universalized conceptions of religion and magic, and scholars have questioned the rise and fall model by suggesting that the terminology is culture-specific and the historical circumstances much more complex than the simple pattern presented. These cross-disciplinary debates, along with the rejection of the Western magic-religion-science paradigm, have contributed to more sensitive treatments of magical practices in diverse societies.

Conclusion

      The study of magic as a distinct cultural phenomenon has a long history in anthropological, sociological, and historical studies. Although some distinctions between magic and other religious or scientific activities may be useful, magic cannot be studied in isolation as it once was. Practices classified as magic represent essentially an aspect or reflection of the worldview held by a particular people at a particular point in their own historical development. Magic, like religion and science, is thus a part of a culture's total worldview.

John F.M. Middleton Robert Andrew Gilbert Karen Louise Jolly

Additional Reading

General works

E.M. Butler, The Myth of the Magus (1948, reissued 1993), and Ritual Magic (1949, reissued 1998), are studies of European magic and its sources; and Lynn Thorndike, A History of Magic and Experimental Science During the First Thirteen Centuries of Our Era, 2 vol. (1923), is a broad survey of Western sources from the Greco-Roman and medieval periods. Arthur C. Lehmann and James E. Myers (compilers), Magic, Witchcraft, and Religion: An Anthropological Study of the Supernatural, 5th ed. (2001), is an important collection of essays; and Ninian Smart, Worldviews: Crosscultural Explorations of Human Beliefs, 3rd ed. (2000), is an introduction to various belief systems using the six-dimension approach.

Works on the theory of magic

Among the most important early works on the theory and practice of magic are Edward B. Tylor, Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom, 3rd American ed., 2 vol. (1889, reprinted 1977), a foundational anthropological study; Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1915, reissued 1976; originally published in French, 1912), a classic statement of the sociological approach to magic; and J.G. Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, 3rd ed., 12 vol. (1911–15), one of the seminal works on magic and religion. Other significant early works are Bronislaw Malinowski, Magic, Science, and Religion, and Other Essays, ed. by Robert Redfield (1948, reprinted 1992); Marcel Mauss, A General Theory of Magic (1972, reprinted 1975; originally published in French, 1902–03), an early anthropological study; and Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics (1950, reissued 1999; originally published in German, 1912–13), a psychoanalytic interpretation. Studies that employ a context-sensitive or cross-cultural approach include Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (1964, reissued 1989; originally published in French, 1951); Claude Lévi-Strauss, Introduction to the Work of Marcel Mauss (1987; originally published in French, 1950), and "Le Sorcier et sa magie," Les Temps modernes, 4(41):385–406 (March 1949); Ralph Merrifield, The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic (1987); and Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality (1990), a survey of Western and anthropological theories. Jacob Neusner, Ernest S. Frerichs, and Paul Virgil McCracken Flesher (eds.), Religion, Science, and Magic: In Concert and in Conflict (1989, reissued 1992), is a collection of essays on definitional theories and case studies; and Hildred Geertz, "An Anthropology of Religion and Magic, I," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 6(1):71–89 (Summer 1975); and Keith Thomas, "An Anthropology of Religion and Magic, II," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 6(1):91–109 (Summer 1975), debate Thomas's rise-and-fall theory.

Magic in the ancient world

Useful studies of magic in the ancient world are Campbell Bonner, Studies in Magical Amulets: Chiefly Graeco-Egyptian (1950); Georg Luck (trans. and ed.), Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (1985, reissued 1987), a collection of texts; Marvin Meyer and Richard Smith (eds.), Ancient Christian Magic: Coptic Texts of Ritual Power (1994, reissued 1999); and R. Campbell Thompson, Semitic Magic: Its Origins and Development (1908, reissued 2000).

Magic in the medieval and early modern world

Charles Burnett, Magic and Divination in the Middle Ages: Texts and Techniques in the Islamic and Christian Worlds (1996); Valerie I.J. Flint, The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe (1991, reissued 1993); Richard Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages (1989, reissued 2000), historical survey and analysis, and "The Specific Rationality of Medieval Magic," American Historical Review, 99(3):813–836 (June 1994); and Henry Maguire (ed.), Byzantine Magic (1995), are helpful surveys of medieval attitudes toward magic. Valuable studies on more specific topics of medieval magic include Alexander Murray, "Missionaries and Magic in Dark-Age Europe," Past & Present, 136:186–205 (August 1992), a study of Europe during the era of conversion; Edward Peters, The Magician, the Witch, and the Law (1978, reissued 1992), a study of the evolution of attitudes toward practitioners of magic; and Joshua Trachtenberg, Jewish Magic and Superstition: A Study in Folk Religion (1939, reissued 1987), on medieval Jewish magic of eastern Europe. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century England (1971, reissued 1997), an influential study based on an anthropological theory; Brian Vickers (ed.), Occult and Scientific Mentalities in the Renaissance (1984); D.P. Walker, Spiritual and Demonic Magic: From Ficino to Campanella, new ed. (1958, reissued 2000), which examines magical theory of the Renaissance; and Frances A. Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (1964, reissued 1999), are good introductions to magic in the early modern period.

Magic in the modern world

Important studies of magic in modern world civilizations are Francis L.K. Hsu, Exorcising the Trouble Makers: Magic, Science, and Culture (1983), and Religion, Science, and Human Crises (1952, reprinted 1973), on China; E.E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles, and Magic Among the Azande (1937, reissued 1968), on African magic and witchcraft; A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, The Andaman Islanders (1922, reissued 1964); and Lee Siegel, Net of Magic: Wonders and Deceptions in India (1991).Karen Louise Jolly

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