John Paul II

(Karol Wojtyla) born 1920, Polish ecclesiastic: pope since 1978.

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orig. Karol Wojtyła

born May 18, 1920, Wadowice, Pol.

died April 2, 2005, Vatican City

Pope (1978–2005), the bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic church, the first non-Italian pope in 455 years and the first ever from a Slavic country.

He studied for the priesthood at an underground seminary in Kraków during World War II and was ordained in 1946. He earned a doctorate in philosophy in Rome (1948) and returned home to serve in a parish, earning a second doctorate (also 1948), in sacred theology, from the Jagiellonian University. He became archbishop of Kraków in 1964 and cardinal in 1967. Elected pope after the 33-day pontificate of John Paul I (b. 1912

d. 1978), he became known for his energy, charisma, and intellect as well as for his conservative theological views and fervent anticommunism. In 1981 John Paul was shot in St. Peter's Square by a Turkish gunman, but he recovered, resumed his work, and forgave his would-be assassin. His trips abroad attracted some of the largest crowds ever assembled. His nonviolent activism spurred movements that contributed to the peaceful dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. He championed economic and political justice in developing nations. In naming 44 cardinals from five continents (February 2001), John Paul reached out to cultures around the world. He also canonized more saints, from more parts of the world, than had any other pope. His ecumenical efforts included meetings with Jewish, Muslim, and Eastern Orthodox religious leaders. Although afflicted with Parkinson disease since the early 1990s, John Paul remained active and made a historic trip to Jerusalem in March 2000, during which he sought to improve relations between the Roman Catholic church and Jews.

John Paul II, 1979.

Lochon-Francolon-Simon/Gamma-Liaison Agency

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▪ 2006

Karol Jozef Wojtyla 

      pope of the Roman Catholic Church (b. May 18, 1920, Wadowice, Pol.—d. April 2, 2005, Vatican City, Vatican City State), served as the spiritual leader of the world's 1.1 billion Roman Catholics for more than 26 years—one of the longest papal reigns in church history. Elected as the 264th bishop of Rome on Oct. 16, 1978, and installed on October 22, John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope in 455 years and the first ever from a Slavic country. The youngest pope ordained in the 20th century, he became known for his energy and charisma as well as for his widely publicized crusades against political oppression. His vocal support for the dissident Solidarity movement in his native Poland, in particular, was a crucial factor in the survival of that movement and helped set the stage for the eventual peaceful dissolution of the Soviet Union. Within the church he maintained a steadfastly conservative stance on theological issues and appointed bishops and cardinals who shared his views. While he failed to reverse a decline in vocations and church attendance, he made extraordinary efforts to reach out to people around the world—to Catholics and non-Catholics alike. Dubbed the “pilgrim pope,” he visited more than 120 countries during his pontificate and appeared in person before more people than had any other pope. The early life of John Paul was marked by tragedy. His mother died when he was nine, his older brother a few years later, and his father during the first years of World War II. A brilliant student who also excelled at sports and drama, he attended the Jagiellonian University in Krakow until German troops closed the school in 1939. He continued his studies at a clandestine seminary while he worked in a quarry and then in a chemical factory—the first pope in modern times to have been a labourer. He was forced into hiding in 1944, resumed his studies after the war, and was ordained a priest in 1946. After earning a doctorate in philosophy from Pontifical Angelicum University in Rome in 1948, he returned to Poland to serve as a parish priest. He earned a second doctorate in sacred theology from the Jagiellonian University, where he also taught before being appointed (1954) to the philosophy faculty of the Catholic University of Lublin. He was named auxiliary bishop of Krakow in 1958 and, after prominent participation in the Second Vatican Council (1962–65), was designated archbishop of Krakow in 1964 and created a cardinal in 1967 by Pope Paul VI. Although his work as archbishop in defending religious freedom under the communist regime in Poland earned him admiration in Rome, he was nevertheless a relative Vatican outsider when he was named to succeed John Paul I, who had died after only 34 days in office. An activist pope virtually from the moment of his inauguration as John Paul II, he wasted little time in embarking on an ambitious touring schedule, making unprecedented papal visits to Mexico, Poland, and Ireland during his first year. Abandoning the customary Vatican policy of neutrality, he openly encouraged dissent in Eastern Europe. Visits by John Paul also weakened authoritarian rule in such countries as Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, the Philippines, and Haiti. His rising profile on the international stage made him an assassination target. In May 1981 he was shot by a Turkish gunman in St. Peter's Square, but he soon recovered and ultimately forgave his would-be assassin. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, John Paul increasingly came to focus criticism on what he saw as the ills of Western society. In a 1995 encyclical he used the phrase “culture of death” to encompass the practices of abortion and euthanasia and the indifference to suffering that he believed stemmed from unbridled capitalism and materialism. He spoke out on an array of other highly contentious issues, condemning divorce, artificial birth control, same-sex unions, and rights for unmarried couples—views that risked alienating many Catholics. Particularly controversial in the U.S. was the Vatican's handling of the priest sex-abuse scandal that erupted in the U.S. in 2002, with critics questioning whether the pope had been aggressive enough in addressing the problem. The last decade of his life was also consumed with ecumenical efforts, which included meetings with Jewish, Muslim, and Orthodox religious leaders. Although afflicted with Parkinson disease since the early 1990s, John Paul remained active and made a historic trip to Jerusalem in March 2000, during which he toured the Yad Vashem Holocaust memorial with Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and met with Muslim leaders at the al-Aqsa Mosque before praying alone at the Western Wall. He made his final foreign trip, to Lourdes, France, in August 2004 and his last public appearance at his apartment window in the Vatican on March 30, 2005. His death three days later brought more than four million mourners to Rome. He was succeeded on April 19, 2005, by Pope Benedict XVI, who in June announced that he had started the process (usually begun after a five-year waiting period) for the sainthood of Pope John Paul II.

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▪ pope

Introduction

Latin  Johannes Paulus , original name  Karol Józef Wojtyła 

born May 18, 1920, Wadowice, Poland

died April 2, 2005, Vatican City

 the bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic church (1978–2005), the first non-Italian pope in 455 years and the first from a Slavic country. His pontificate of more than 26 years was the third longest in history. As part of his effort to promote greater understanding between nations and between religions, he undertook numerous trips abroad, traveling far greater distances than had all other popes combined, and he extended his influence beyond the church by campaigning against political oppression and criticizing the materialism of the West. He also issued several unprecedented apologies to groups that historically had been wronged by Catholics, most notably Jews and Muslims. His unabashed Polish nationalism and his emphasis on nonviolent political activism aided the Solidarity movement in communist Poland in the 1980s and ultimately contributed to the peaceful dissolution of the Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) in 1991. More generally, John Paul used his influence among Catholics and throughout the world to advance the recognition of human dignity and to deter the use of violence. His centralized style of church governance, however, dismayed some members of the clergy, who found it autocratic and stifling. He failed to reverse an overall decline in the numbers of priests and nuns, and his traditional interpretations of church teachings on personal and sexual morality alienated some segments of the laity.

Early life and influences

      Wojtyła's childhood coincided with the only period of freedom that Poland would know between 1772 and 1989: the two decades between Marshal Józef Piłsudski's (Piłsudski, Józef) defeat of the Soviet Red Army in 1920 and the German invasion in 1939. Wojtyła thus grew up experiencing national freedom but also understanding its vulnerability. Although Wadowice, a town of about 8,000 Catholics and 2,000 Jews, lay only 15 miles (24 km) from the future site of Auschwitz, a Nazi death camp, there was apparently little anti-Semitism in the town before the war. One of Wojtyła's close boyhood friends was a son of the leader of Wadowice's Jewish community.

      Wojtyła's father, Karol senior, was a lieutenant in the Polish army. His mother, Emilia Kaczorowska, died when he was eight years old; his brother, Edmund, who had become a physician, died less than four years later. Wojtyła was an outgoing youth, though always with a serious side. He excelled in academics and dramatics, played football (soccer), and, under his father's guidance, lived a disciplined life of routine religious observance. He regularly assisted Father Kazimierz Figlewicz, his confessor and first teacher in Catholicism, in Wadowice's main church, which was next door to the Wojtyła family's tiny apartment.

      After graduating from secondary school as valedictorian, Wojtyła moved with his father to Kraków, where he attended the Jagiellonian University. His studies ended abruptly when Nazi Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. In the months that followed, Jews as well as non-Jewish cultural and political leaders, including professors and priests, were killed or deported to concentration camps (concentration camp) by the Nazis (Nazi Party), who considered the Slavs an inferior race.

      Wojtyła and his father fled with thousands to the east but soon returned after learning that the Russians had also invaded Poland. Back in Kraków, Wojtyła continued his studies in clandestine classes. For the next four years, in order to avoid arrest and deportation, he worked in a factory owned by Solvay, a chemical firm that the Nazis considered essential to their war effort. Wojtyła was thus the only pope, at least in modern times, to have been a labourer.

      During these years Wojtyła began to write nationalistic plays, and he joined the Rhapsodic Theatre, an underground resistance group that aimed to sustain Polish culture and morale through covert readings of poetry and drama. Through Jan Tyranowski, a tailor who conducted a youth ministry for the local church, Wojtyła was introduced to the teachings of St. John of the Cross (John of the Cross, Saint), a Carmelite mystic who held that redemption could be gained through suffering and a “spirituality of abandonment.” Tyranowski's example helped to convince Wojtyła that the church, even more than a renewed Polish theatre, might improve the world. Wojtyła's confessor continued to be his childhood mentor, Figlewicz, who had transferred to Wawel Cathedral in Kraków.

Decision to join the priesthood

      In February 1941 Wojtyła returned from work one day to discover that his father had died alone; he prayed by the body all night. By the autumn of 1942 he had decided to enter the priesthood. For two years, while still working at the chemical factory, he attended illegal seminary classes run by Kraków's cardinal archbishop, Prince Adam Sapieha (Sapieha Family). After narrowly escaping a Nazi roundup of able-bodied men and boys in 1944, Wojtyła spent the rest of the war in the archbishop's palace, disguised as a cleric. As pope, Wojtyła recalled that witnessing Nazi horrors, including the murder of many priests, showed him the real meaning of the priesthood.

      In 1945 the Soviets replaced the Germans as occupiers of Poland. In November 1946 Wojtyła was ordained by Sapieha into the Catholic priesthood. He chose to say his first mass, assisted by Figlewicz, in Wawel Cathedral's crypt chapel amid the sarcophagi of Polish monarchs and heroes, including those who had defended national freedom and European Christendom. He then began two years of study in Rome, where he completed his first doctorate, an examination of the theology of St. John of the Cross. Assigned to Kraków's St. Florian's parish in 1949, he studied, wrote, and lectured on philosophy and social and sexual ethics. During the next decade he completed a second doctorate, taught theology and ethics at the Jagiellonian University, and eventually was appointed to a full professorship at the Catholic University of Lublin.

      The young priest wrote poetry, published anonymously, on a variety of religious, social, and personal themes. He also became the spiritual leader and mentor of a circle of young adult friends whom he joined on kayaking and camping trips. Together, they celebrated mass in the open at a time when unapproved worship outside of churches was forbidden by the communist regime. Experiences with these friends contributed to the ideas in his first book of nonfiction, Love and Responsibility (1960), an exploration of the several graces (grace) available in conjugal sexual relationships. The work was considered radical by those who held the traditional church view that sex was solely for the purpose of procreation.

      Church leaders were impressed by Wojtyła's ability to operate a dynamic pastorate despite communist restrictions. In 1958 Pope Pius XII appointed him an auxiliary bishop of Kraków. At the Second Vatican Council (Vatican Council, Second) (1962–65) Wojtyła so distinguished himself that halfway through the council, in December 1963, Pope Paul VI named him archbishop of Kraków.

      The Second Vatican Council introduced Wojtyła to issues including the role of the laity, the church's relations with other religions, and its relations with the secular world. After the council's conclusion in 1965, Wojtyła was appointed to Pope Paul VI's Commission for the Study of Problems of the Family, Population, and Birth Rate. His work appears to have influenced Humanae vitae (1968; “Of Human Life”), Paul VI's encyclical rejecting artificial contraception, which became one of the church's most ignored teachings. Some bishops also disagreed with it, saying privately that, on this issue, Wojtyła may have made basic theological mistakes.

Actions as cardinal

      Wojtyła was made a cardinal in June 1967. As cardinal archbishop of Kraków, he worked closely with Poland's powerful primate cardinal, Stefan Wyszyński (Wyszyński, Stefan), archbishop of Warsaw, who declared that Christianity, not communism, was the true protector of the poor and oppressed. In an effort that spanned two decades, Wojtyła lobbied for permission to build a church in Kraków's new industrial suburb, Nowa Huta. He planted a cross in the field where the church was to stand and defied communist authorities by holding masses there. He also applied for permission to hold traditional religious processions in the streets, though he was often turned down. Eventually Wojtyła prevailed, and he consecrated Nowa Huta's new Ark Church in 1977. Meanwhile, he had written his major philosophical work, The Acting Person (1969), which argues that moral actions—not simply thoughts or statements—create authentic personality and define what a person truly stands for.

      Ironically, the authorities forced Wojtyła to develop a public speaking style that would eventually work against them: denied access to the media, he and fellow church leaders traveled ceaselessly among the people and grew skilled at communicating with large crowds. This ability would enhance the impact of the messages he delivered as pope to the faithful around the world, especially during his trips, when his ability to appeal to the millions who gathered to see him was captured in global television broadcasts.

Election as pope

      When Pope Paul VI died in August 1978, the College of Cardinals, split between two powerful Italians, elected the Venetian Albino Luciani as Pope John Paul I. He died only 33 days later. When the cardinals entered the second conclave of 1978, the world did not know that Wojtyła had received votes in the first conclave. Wojtyła seemed in some ways a good compromise candidate who could hold together a divided church. Liberal interpretations of religious life that followed the Second Vatican Council had created rifts and defections; religious conservatives were digging in, claiming that the council had betrayed the church. Wojtyła appeared to be traditional in church discipline but forward-looking in his acceptance of Vatican Council reforms. The cardinals also hoped that his relative youthfulness would attract young people to the church. Wojtyła's election on October 16, 1978, made him the first non-Italian pope since the Dutch Adrian VI (reigned 1522–23).

      In taking the name John Paul II—which his predecessor, John Paul I, had said honoured the two popes of the Second Vatican Council—he signaled his intention to continue with the council's reforms. His homily at an installation mass on October 22, 1978, repeated the refrain “Be not afraid!”—a Biblical phrase announcing the presence of God and Jesus Christ and calling for Christian courage. It also presaged the bold but nonviolent human rights campaigns that John Paul would conduct around the world.

First year of travels

      John Paul's characteristic mixture of religion and politics—and its deep roots in Poland—became evident during the first year of his pontificate in his first four trips abroad. He went first to Mexico (January 1979), where he reaffirmed for the bishops of Latin America, leaders of half the world's Catholics, that politics—especially as it concerns human rights, personal dignity, and religious freedom—is an area of human life in which priests as well as laity must be involved. While there, he attracted what was called the largest crowd ever assembled—estimated at some five million people.

      His second trip (June 1979) was to Poland, where he declared to his audiences that their Catholic faith dictated that they had a right to be free. Many Poles said later that the sight of themselves assembled in enormous but orderly gatherings made them realize their own political strength and encouraged their subsequent defiance of the communist regime. John Paul's speeches and activities served as models for the Polish priests who would carry out his independence campaigns in the country after he returned to Rome.

      John Paul's third trip (October 1979) took him to Ireland, where he condemned violence done in the name of religion, and to the United States, where he was given a Wall Street ticker-tape parade. To the chagrin of some Americans, John Paul used his U.S. visit to express serious disagreements with the West, including aspects of American capitalism. In particular, he decried the neglect of the poor and denounced the exploitation of poor nations by wealthy ones.

      On his fourth trip (November 1979) he visited Turkey to meet with the titular head of the Eastern Orthodox church, which included most of the state-allied churches of what was then the Soviet Union. He thereby indicated a possible intention to pressure Soviet leaders by means of church congregations across eastern Europe. Although such an eastern arm of his anti-Soviet campaign never materialized, the Soviet government viewed it as a serious threat.

Political and cultural messages

      In travels during the next 10 years, John Paul preached to the world his messages of religious freedom, national independence, and human rights. He declared that all of Europe—“from the Atlantic to the Ural Mountains” (east of Moscow)—should be reunited through its common Christian heritage. Some Vatican clergy said privately that the new pope was traveling too much, giving a triumphalist face to Catholicism when he should have been concentrating more on rebuilding the church from behind his desk in the Vatican. John Paul kept traveling.

      From the start of his papacy, John Paul strictly reasserted the canon law banning priests from any active participation in party politics. His intention was not to weaken Catholicism's political impact but to unify the church and to strengthen its moral authority. He wanted Catholic social doctrine—developed in part from Pope Leo XIII's seminal encyclical on workers' rights, Rerum Novarum (1891; “Of New Things”)—to be delivered with the singular political authority of the Vatican, unaltered by local politics.

      On May 13, 1981, John Paul was shot and nearly killed by a 23-year-old Turkish man, Mehmet Ali Agca. Meanwhile, the Poles' other spiritual leader, Primate Cardinal Wyszyński, lay dying of cancer. The sudden prospect of losing both men unsettled the Solidarity movement. Although no conspiracy in the assassination attempt was ever proved in court, the widespread suspicion that the Soviets were involved (in the hope of demoralizing Solidarity) did much to diminish world opinion of the Soviet Union at the time. John Paul later publicly forgave his would-be assassin, who had shot him on the feast day of the Virgin of Fátima. John Paul said the Virgin had saved his life by guiding the bullet away from vital organs. He made a pilgrimage to the shrine of the Virgin in Fátima, Portugal, on the first anniversary of the assassination attempt, but, during a ceremony in which John Paul consecrated the modern world to the Immaculate Heart of Mary, a priest ordained by (and subsequently disowned by) the dissident French archbishop Marcel Lefebvre (Lefebvre, Marcel) lunged at the pope with a bayonet, narrowly missing him.

      As the Polish Solidarity movement gained momentum, John Paul repeatedly emphasized to his fellow Poles the importance of pressing for change peacefully, so as not to give the communist regime a justification for using force and dismantling the trade union. In December 1981 Poland's premier, General Wojciech Jaruzelski (Jaruzelski, Wojciech Witold), declared martial law. Despite the arrest of thousands of Solidarity members and years of uncertainty, the movement persevered. In April 1989 the communists legalized the trade union, and in June of that year Solidarity made a strong showing in free elections. In December 1989 Mikhail Gorbachev (Gorbachev, Mikhail) became the first Soviet leader to visit the Vatican. The collapse of the Soviet Union occurred two years later. Throughout the 1980s John Paul's continuing private discussions with Polish and Soviet leaders, and his persistent success in keeping Solidarity a nonviolent movement, helped inspire similar movements in other Soviet-bloc countries and eventually led Gorbachev to write that John Paul's approach had made a new kind of thinking possible.

      John Paul's visits to other countries ruled by nondemocratic regimes, especially in Latin America, raised the political expectations of the people and thus contributed, in the opinion of some analysts, to the eventual emergence of democratic governments in those regions. In a 1995 address to the General Assembly (United Nations) of the United Nations (UN), he said that universal moral law could help the world move from “a century of violent coercion” to “a century of persuasion.” His intervention in a territorial dispute between Chile and Argentina during the first year of his pontificate was credited with preventing a war between the two countries. Not all his political initiatives were successful, however. His fierce criticism of some U.S. actions, such as the First and Second Persian Gulf wars against Iraq and the economic embargo against Cuba, had little visible effect. His popular visit to communist Cuba in 1998, however—where he was openly welcomed by President Fidel Castro (Castro, Fidel), who admired John Paul's criticisms of unbridled American capitalism—did lead to greater acceptance and freedom for the Roman Catholic church there.

      After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, John Paul continued to criticize what he considered the pernicious effects of materialism in the West, including consumerism and pornography. Western societies, he believed, were falling prey to a “culture of death” characterized by acceptance of abortion and euthanasia; he also chided their indifference to the suffering of the poor and the widely held belief that modern technologies can assure fundamental happiness. In the later years of his papacy, he strongly emphasized the message of nonviolence, reflecting a concern borne of his experience of the German and Soviet occupations of his homeland. He frequently made personal appeals for clemency in cases of prisoners sentenced to death, and he repeatedly insisted that religion should never be used as an excuse for violence of any kind.

Dialogue with other faiths

World religions

      In 1986 John Paul invited the leaders of all major religions to Assisi, Italy, for a universal prayer service for world peace. The meeting was scorned by the ultraconservatives of several religions, including his own. The traditionalist archbishop Lefebvre (Lefebvre, Marcel) called the pope's action a “scandal” and a betrayal of “the one true faith.” Lefebvre also cited it as one of the reasons he consecrated his own bishops (without papal approval) in 1988—the first significant schism in reaction to the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and an act Lefebvre knew would result in his excommunication. Nevertheless, by the mid-1990s John Paul had orchestrated some dramatic acts of interfaith reconciliation, especially with the two other religions that stem from Abraham— Judaism and Islam (Islām). He worked to improve relations with these two faiths through frequent meetings that often garnered little public attention. Crucial to John Paul's approach to other religions was his unprecedented campaign to involve Catholics in general apologies for the sins of Catholics against others throughout history, including those committed during the Crusades and against indigenous peoples, women, suspected heretics, non-Catholic Christians, Muslims, and Jews.

      From the start of his pontificate, John Paul cultivated personal contacts with Jewish leaders and continued to assert, as he had in Poland, that the Jews are, for Christians, “our elder brothers in faith.” In 1986 he became the first pontiff known to have entered a synagogue, when he embraced the chief rabbi at the Great Synagogue of Rome. In 1990 he declared anti-Semitism a sin against God and humanity, and throughout his papacy he used his influence in efforts to help end nearly 2,000 years of oppression and violence inflicted on Jews by Christians. By the end of 1993 he had pushed the Vatican to recognize the State of Israel, overriding the objections of Vatican officials who worried about the consequences for Christian minorities in Arab countries, and on Holocaust Remembrance Day in 1994 he hosted Jews and Christians at an unprecedented memorial concert inside the Vatican. On the controversial question of Pope Pius XII's policy of neutrality during World War II, John Paul did not criticize his silence but asserted that Pius had acted with deep conscience in a terrible situation. The Vatican document We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah (1998) reviewed various aspects of Catholic anti-Jewish prejudice that contributed to the Holocaust.

      A few reconciliation efforts failed. John Paul's canonization of Jewish convert Edith Stein (Stein, Edith), a nun killed at Auschwitz because she was Jewish, offended many Jews who felt it usurped a Jewish tragedy for Catholic purposes. For them, John Paul only added to this offense by saying her new saint's day should be a Catholic remembrance of the Holocaust's Jewish victims. In March 2000 in Jerusalem, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak welcomed John Paul to Yad Vashem, a memorial to Holocaust victims, with the words “Blessed are you in Israel.” Three days later the pope prayed alone at the Western Wall, into which he placed a printed prayer requesting forgiveness and citing a desire for “genuine brotherhood with the People of the Covenant.” These gestures were favourably received by most Israelis.

      One month earlier, in Cairo, John Paul had become the first head of his church to meet with the Sheikh al-Azhar, one of Sunni Islam's highest religious authorities. The next year, in May 2001, John Paul became the first pope ever to enter a mosque, the Great Mosque of Damascus (Damascus, Great Mosque of) (also known as the Umayyad Mosque), where, in the company of Muslim clerics, he prayed at the shrine of St. John the Baptist (John the Baptist, Saint). From the beginning of his pontificate, he held nearly 50 substantive meetings with Muslim leaders—far more than those of all previous popes combined.

Christian ecumenism

      John Paul's highly personalized encyclical Ut unum sint (1995; “That They May Be One”) reviewed 30 years of ecumenical relations, including his visits—the first by any pope—to Canterbury Cathedral and to Lutheran churches in Germany and Sweden. Its invitation to non-Catholic churches to join John Paul in rethinking the role of the papacy in world Christianity sparked new ecumenical discussions.

      Although his hopes of mending the 1,000-year rift with the Eastern Orthodox (Eastern Orthodoxy) church (see Schism of 1054 (1054, Schism of)) were advanced with his visits to a few nations of the former Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox (Russian Orthodox church) church remained suspicious and did not invite him to visit the country.

Ecclesiastical and theological contributions

      During his long pontificate, John Paul directed the rewriting of several major church texts. The revisions included the new Codex Juris Canonici (1983), the first update of the Code of Canon Law (Canon Law, Code of) since 1917; Pastor Bonus (1988; “Good Shepherd”), the first reform of the Roman Curia since 1967; and the new Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium (1990; “Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches”). In 1992 he promulgated the new Catechism of the Catholic Church, its first revision in more than four centuries (see catechism).

      John Paul admired and encouraged the scientific search for truth but warned against the misuse of science in ways that undermine human dignity. He saw no basic contradiction between the findings of modern science and biblical accounts of the Creation, stating in a series of brief homilies (published as Original Unity of Man and Woman, 1981) that some stories in Genesis, including the story of Adam and Eve, should be understood as inspired metaphor. In 1984 the Vatican declared that the church's condemnation of Galileo in 1633 had been in error; John Paul subsequently stated that Galileo had been “imprudently opposed” by the church. In his encyclical Fides et ratio (1998; “Faith and Reason”), he argued for the importance of reason in the development of any meaningful faith. He was also the first pope to link the protection of the natural environment (conservation) firmly to Catholic theology, declaring in 1999 that destruction of the environment “can be a grave sin” and “a sign of real contempt for man.”

Final years

      Beginning in the early 1990s, the once-robust John Paul was increasingly slowed by Parkinson disease and by a series of operations. Nonetheless, he maintained a rigorous schedule, insisting that his visible suffering was part of his ministry. To aides urging him to slow down, he reportedly said simply, “Si crollo, crollo” (“If I collapse, I collapse”). Although he may have considered the possibility of resignation, he remained silent on the subject (few popes had resigned, the last being Gregory XII in 1415). Even in old age he continued to attract enormous crowds; four million were estimated to have joined him at a mass in Manila in 1995, and two million assembled at a Kraków mass in 2002. After 2003, he appeared in public only when seated. By Easter 2005, following a tracheotomy, he was unable to speak to the people he blessed from his apartment window. His funeral in April 2005 drew to Rome millions of pilgrims, as well as a number of the world's former and current political leaders. In May 2005 his successor, Pope Benedict XVI, waiving the usual five-year waiting period, allowed review to begin in the cause of John Paul II for beatification and canonization.

Assessment

      John Paul II was, in a real sense, the first globally oriented pope. His election coincided with the arrival of routine, worldwide, instantaneous audiovisual communications, and many of his major efforts were intended to adjust—though not to challenge—the essential tenets of Catholicism for an open, interconnected world in which nations and religions must live in daily contact with one another. By publishing unprecedented papal meditations about other faiths, he demonstrated how a Catholic may approach them with reverence. He also hoped to strengthen Catholicism in many cultures around the world by canonizing far more saints—drawn from a broader geographical and occupational spectrum—than had any of his predecessors.

      In 2000 John Paul centralized ecclesiastical and theological control over Catholic educational institutions around the world, prompting renewed criticism from members of the church hierarchy who believed that the Second Vatican Council had called upon the pope to be less of an autocrat and more of a collegial moderator. John Paul also proscribed the teachings of some dissident Catholic theologians. For example, early in his pontificate he censured Hans Küng (Küng, Hans) for arguing that the Catholic church was wrong to invoke papal infallibility. In the 1980s John Paul's uneasiness with liberation theology (which he regarded as too closely allied with Marxism and Soviet communism) prompted him to withdraw bureaucratic and moral support from ecclesial base communities in parts of Latin America, a move that may have contributed to the defection of large numbers of Catholics in the region to Evangelical Protestantism.

      Throughout his pontificate John Paul maintained traditional church positions on gender and sexual issues, denouncing abortion, artificial contraception, premarital sex, and—through Vatican teachings—homosexual practices (though not homosexual orientation). He continually rebuffed pleas for priests to be allowed to marry and denied requests from Catholic nuns who wanted a greater role in the church. And, though he often spoke out for full equality for women outside religious vocations, he rejected even any discussion of the ordination of women as priests—a stance that evoked sharp and continuing criticism from some quarters.

      Some critics charged that John Paul's autocratic style of governing greatly discouraged American and European bishops from seeking the Vatican's help in responding to accusations, which began in the late 20th century, of sexual abuse of minors by clergy. Even as revelations of the abuse grew into a worldwide scandal, the church did little to confront the problem, allowing it to fester without intervention or punishment. In April 2002 the U.S. cardinals received an unprecedented papal summons to Rome, during which time John Paul declared that there was “no place in the priesthood” for anyone who would abuse children. In June 2002 all American bishops met in Dallas, Texas, to adopt strict new policies for investigating any charges of clergy abuse of minors and removing proven offenders. Ultimately, however, the church's reputation in the United States and Europe was gravely damaged. By 2005 the church in the United States had spent more than $1 billion in litigation and legal settlements.

      John Paul's emphasis on human rights and national and religious freedom suggested to some a theology that was excessively “human-centred” and insufficiently “Christ-centred.” A related criticism was that his political campaigns involved the church too directly in worldly affairs and thereby threatened to obscure its spiritual mission. His defenders argued that his humanistic (humanism) Catholicism was based upon the person and inspiration of Christ and that his campaigns could be justified by the Catholic belief that it was his duty as the Vicar of Christ to help alleviate the world's suffering. Moreover, they urged, his activism only helped the church by showing that its essential values, advanced with commitment and courage, could improve the world. Other critics claimed that his pontifical writings were often unfocused, but supporters insisted that his encyclicals and other assertions were simply so numerous, varied, and farsighted that it would take years for their impact on Catholicism to be understood.

      From the start of his pontificate, John Paul tried to reassert a sense of religious challenge and discipline by making firm declarations about personal morality and the religious life. This effort generally did not reverse a dramatic decline in vocations to the priesthood and sisterhood, nor did it improve church attendance in many Catholic countries. The cardinals who elected him had asked that he end the sense of confusion among many Catholics that seemed to stem from the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, but there was no consensus that he did. Nevertheless, John Paul is generally seen as having increased the global prestige of the papacy and thus to have laid a foundation for possible future revival within the church.

William B. Blakemore

Additional Reading

Biographies of John Paul II include Tad Szulc, Pope John Paul II, The Biography (1995), which is especially valuable for perspectives on Karol Wojtyła's early development and accomplishments in Poland; George Weigel, Witness to Hope: The biography of Pope John Paul II (1999), which offers rich detail but little criticism of the pope; and Jonathan Kwitney, Man of the Century: The Life and Times of Pope John Paul II (1997), valuable for analysis of John Paul's geopolitical impact. An assessment of John Paul relative to two of his predecessors is Wilton Wynn, Keepers of the Keys: John XXIII, Paul VI, and John Paul II—Three Who Changed the Church (1988). Critical examinations include Garry Wills, Papal Sins (2000). Luigi Accattoli, When a Pope Asks Forgiveness: The Mea Culpas of John Paul II (1999), documents his unprecedented church apologies.

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