Guangdong

/gwahng"dawng"/, n. Pinyin.

a province in SE China. 42,800,000; 89,344 sq. mi. (231,401 sq. km). Cap.: Canton.

Also, Kwangtung.

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or Kuang-tung conventional Kwangtung

Southernmost mainland province (pop., 2000 est.: 86,420,000), China.

It is bounded by the South China Sea to the south, and along its coast are Hong Kong and Macao; also bordering it are Fujian, Jiangxi, and Hunan provinces and Guangxi autonomous region. It has an area of 76,100 sq mi (197,100 sq km). The capital is Guangzhou (Canton). It was first incorporated into the Chinese empire in 222 BC. Overseas trade through Guangzhou swelled the population of the province in the 16th–17th centuries. It was the site of illicit opium importation by the British, which led to the First Opium War in 1841. Kowloon was ceded to Britain in 1860 and Macao to Portugal in 1887; both were restored to China in the late 1990s. Guangdong was a base for the Nationalists under Sun Yat-sen from 1912. Japanese forces occupied the province in 1938–45. Its centuries of foreign contact have given it a degree of self-sufficiency that sets it apart from the rest of China; more recently it has developed several special economic zones.

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▪ province, China

Introduction

Wade-Giles romanization  Kuang-tung , conventional  Kwangtung 

      sheng (province) of South China. It is the southernmost of the mainland provinces and constitutes the region through which South China's trade is primarily channeled. Guangdong has one of the longest coastlines of any province, fronting the South China Sea to the southeast and south (including connections to the two special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau). It is also bounded by the Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi (Kwangsi) to the west and by the provinces of Hunan and Jiangxi (Kiangsi) to the north and Fujian (Fukien) to the northeast. The capital is Guangzhou (Canton) (Canton), at the head of the Pearl (Zhu) River Delta (Pearl River Delta).

      Historically, Guangdong and Guangxi often were jointly governed. Guangdong was first administered as a separate entity in 997CE; it was from this time that the term Guangdong (Chinese: “Eastern Expanses”) began to be used. Guangdong has its own physical and cultural identity. Its topography separates it somewhat from the rest of China, and this factor—together with its long coastline, its contact with other countries through its overseas emigrants, and its early exposure to Western influence through the port of Guangzhou—resulted in the emergence of a degree of self-sufficiency and separatism. Guangzhou long dominated the province to an unusual extent, though that dominance has lessened somewhat as Hong Kong has been reintegrated back into China and cities around the Pearl River Delta (notably Shenzhen) have risen in prominence. Area 76,100 square miles (197,100 square km). Pop (2007 est.) 93,510,000.

Land

Relief

      The surface configuration in Guangdong is diverse, being composed primarily of rounded hills, cut by streams and rivers, and scattered and ribbonlike alluvial valleys. Together with the Guangxi region, Guangdong is clearly separated from the Yangtze River basin by the Nan Mountains, the southernmost of the major Chinese mountain ranges running from east to west. The greater part of eastern Guangdong consists of the southerly extension of the Southern Uplands, which stretch down from Fujian and Zhejiang provinces. A series of longitudinal valleys running from northeast to southwest extends as far as the vicinity of Guangzhou (Canton). Smooth, low hills cover about 70 percent of the province. Most peaks range in elevation from 1,500 to 2,500 feet (450 to 750 metres), with a few reaching 5,500 feet (1,675 metres) or more. Level land of any size is primarily found in the alluvial deltas, formed where rivers empty into the South China Sea.

Drainage

      Of great extent and importance is the Pearl River Delta. Measuring about 2,900 square miles (7,500 square km), it is marked by hilly outliers and by a labyrinth of canalized channels and distributaries totaling some 1,500 miles (2,400 km) in length. The delta marks the convergence of the three major rivers of the Xi River system—the Xi (West), Bei (North), and Dong (East) rivers. The Pearl River itself, extending southward from Guangzhou, receives the Dong River and opens into its triangular estuary that has Macau (west) and Hong Kong (east) at its mouth. Entirely rain-fed, these rivers are subject to extreme seasonal fluctuations, and they collect so much water that, anomalously, the Xi system discharges six and a half times as much water annually as the Huang He (Yellow River) although its basin area is only about half as large.

      Altogether, Guangdong has some 1,300 large and small rivers. The Han (Han River) is the most important river outside the Pearl system. Other important rivers and lowlands are located in the southwest. The middle and lower courses of many of these rivers have become seriously polluted since the late 1990s, caused by vast quantities of untreated sewage and wastewater pouring into them from the province's rapidly growing urban and industrial areas.

Climate

      Since much of Guangdong lies south of the Tropic of Cancer, it is one of the Chinese provinces with tropical and subtropical climates. The average July temperature in the Xi River valley, which is 82 to 86 °F (28 to 30 °C), is little different from temperatures in the lower Yangtze and on the Huang He, but the average January temperature is considerably higher, ranging from 55 to 61 °F (13 to 16 °C). Except at higher elevations, frost is rare, so that almost the entire province lies within the area where two crops of rice can be grown. True winter does not occur in the province, but the hot summer varies in length from about 10 months in the south to 6 months in the north.

      The rainfall regime shows a pronounced summer maximum, with the rainy season lasting from mid-April, when Guangdong starts to be dominated by moisture-laden tropical air masses from the Equator and the Indian Ocean, until mid-October. More than half of the total precipitation falls between June and August. The months between July and September form the main season for typhoons (tropical cyclones (tropical cyclone)), which ordinarily are accompanied by heavy rains and widespread destruction. The driest period is from December to February. Guangdong's annual rainfall is approximately 60 to 80 inches (1,500 to 2,000 mm), decreasing with distance from the coast to the northwest but increasing with altitude and exposure to the prevailing summer monsoon winds.

Soils

      In general, the province's soils are poor, as high temperatures and plentiful rainfall result in podzolization (bleaching) and leaching. Almost all of western Guangdong is covered with mature red soils, whereas the rest of the province is covered with a mixture of old and young red soils that usually have been subjected to a high degree of podzolization. In the wettest and hottest parts of Guangdong, lateritic (heavily leached, iron-bearing) soils are common; like the red soils, they do not resist erosion and require substantial fertilizing for cultivation. Yellow soils are found in the wettest and coolest parts of Guangdong, occurring in small pockets of flatland with imperfect drainage.

      Of more limited distribution but of greater economic significance are the alluviums deposited in the river valleys and deltas. As a result of the cultivation of rice, the alluviums have developed special morphological characteristics, the most striking of which is the formation of iron hardpans (hard impervious layers composed chiefly of clay) in the zone of the fluctuating water table.

Plant and animal life

      Abundant moisture, moderate to high temperatures, and variegated physiography support luxuriant and highly diversified plant growth. Broad-leaved evergreen forests, intermixed with coniferous and deciduous trees, originally covered much of the land, while a more tropical type of vegetation predominates on the south coast. With the exception of the more remote mountainous areas, much of this natural vegetation cover has been stripped by fire and by the use of trees and shrubs for fuel. This circumstance, together with millennia of uninterrupted cultivation, has resulted in much of the natural vegetation now taking the form of secondary forests of hardwoods and horsetail pine. On the more severely eroded hills, coarse grasses and ferns have taken hold. Bamboo groves, varying greatly in height and extent, are widespread, particularly in humid river valleys. The most productive and least disturbed forests cover the mountainous areas. Certain trees, notably camphor, have been revered and protected for centuries and are found around cultivated fields. Since 1949, massive afforestation programs have been undertaken. In the highlands, where coniferous and deciduous species thrive together, the broad-leaved evergreen forests are characterized by tropical oaks, tan oaks (oaks that yield tannin), and chestnut oaks (or chinquapins). The more significant coniferous species of economic value include horsetail pine, Chinese fir, and Chinese hemlock. Some of the species of cypress and pine are little known outside China. Truly tropical monsoon rainforests are common in the south.

      Among the mammals found in Guangdong are many tropical bats, and squirrels, mice, and rats of many species are abundant. Insectivores are generally more diverse than in other regions of China, and carnivores are exemplified by civet cats and small-clawed otters. Types of birds vary according to habitat. In the tropical forest, wildfowl, peacocks, and silver pheasants are common. Reptiles are more restricted in distribution. Guangdong has a number of pit vipers, including the huge and deadly Chinese vipers and bamboo vipers, as well as nonpoisonous pythons, which can grow up to 20 feet (6 metres) long. Insects of every description—crickets, butterflies, dragonflies, grasshoppers, cicadas, and beetles—are found in profusion. Amphibians include ground burrowers and many types of frogs and toads. Tigers, rhinoceroses, leopards, wolves, bears, and foxes once roamed the hills of Guangdong, but their numbers have been decimated by forest fires, persistent deforestation, and hunting; they are now considered to be nearly extinct in the area. In the tropical monsoon forest, however, a great number of animals, many of which live in the trees, still remain. In addition, dozens of natural protection zones have been set up in the province to provide refuge for those endangered species.

People

Population composition

 Guangdong is populated largely by the han (Chinese), the other ethnic minorities totaling only a tiny portion of its population. The Yao (Mien) are the largest ethnic minority in Guangdong and are concentrated principally near its northwestern border in autonomous counties. A heavily Sinicized group, the Zhuang, live in northwestern Guangdong in Lianshan. Another group, the She, live in the northeast and in the north around Shaoguan, notably in an autonomous county west of the city. The Jing were transferred to Guangxi in 1965, when the multinational Dongxing (now Fangcheng) autonomous county in extreme southwestern Guangdong changed its provincial jurisdiction. The so-called Boat People—the Tan (Dan) or Tanka (Danjia in the Cantonese language)—are not officially designated as a national minority. Whereas some scholars believe they are descendants of aboriginal people, others regard them simply as a people who live on boats and speak Cantonese. They generally live along the rivers in the Xi-Pearl basin as well as along the coast.

      The relative ethnic homogeneity prevailing in Guangdong stands in contrast to the great diversity of dialects and languages. By far the most important of these is Cantonese (Cantonese language), spoken in central and western Guangdong. Once thought to be a dialect of Chinese, Cantonese is now considered to be a language in its own right. There is considerable variety among the Cantonese speakers, but the form spoken in Guangzhou is generally regarded as the standard. Hakka (Hakka language) is another important language, which predominates in the north and northeast areas of the province. Offshoots of Hakka are common in central Guangdong. A third major language, Southern Min (Min languages) (Minnan), is spoken mostly along an eastern coastal area centred on Shantou (Swatow).

      In addition to these Sinitic languages, there are the languages and dialects of the ethnic minorities. New scripts have been created for a number of these languages. They not only are taught in minority-area schools but also are used in conjunction with Chinese in official communications in minority communities.

      Ancestor worship, folk religions, and the institutional religions of Daoism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam coexist in the province, as they do in most places in China. Among these religions, ancestor worship has the most pervasive influence. Although some folk religions are national in outlook, others are of a more regional or local character, such as the worship of Tianhou Shenmu, the goddess of fishing and navigation. With the possible exception of Muslims and Christians, people in Guangdong are polytheistic, visiting temples or priests of different faiths as occasions demand.

Settlement patterns

      About two-fifths of the people of the province live in villages, which remain the basic functional units in the countryside. The greatest numbers of villages are in the fertile river deltas and along the waterways. To an even greater extent, towns and cities are located in the deltas and coastal areas and along major communication lines. The most highly urbanized area within the province is the Pearl River Delta, where the great majority of the population lives in urban areas. Guangdong is a relatively highly urbanized province for China, with its largest urban agglomeration centred on Guangzhou. However, Shenzhen and Shantou are major metropolises as well, and Foshan, Shaoguan, Jiangmen, Zhuhai, and Zhanjiang are important municipalities. Guangzhou and Zhanjiang (on the Leizhou Peninsula in the southwest) were designated “open” coastal cities in the early 1980s and have become central to the planning of the province's economic future. Also at that time, Shantou (on the eastern coast) and Shenzhen and Zhuhai (situated near Hong Kong and Macau, respectively) were designated special economic zones (special economic zone), each becoming a major economic influence in the region.

Demographic trends

      Guangdong's population has grown dramatically since 1980, nearly doubling in size since then. This increase is largely because of the influx of millions of people who work in the factories of the coastal cities. Some two-thirds of the province's residents are now classified as urban. In addition to the growth of Guangdong's permanent population, there also has been a significant rise in the number of people who spend part of the year there in factory jobs before returning to their home provinces.

Economy

      For centuries the economic foundation of Guangdong was primarily agriculture, but that sector's proportion of the provincial economy has been declining since the mid-1980s. In part, this is because rapid urbanization from the late 1980s has encroached on the croplands around major municipalities, seriously reducing agricultural production there. In addition the relative value of manufactured goods in the provincial economy has risen dramatically since that time.

Agriculture

      Rice is the leading crop. Since less than one-fifth of the land is under cultivation, agriculture is of necessity extremely intensive; but the limited extent of sown land available is partly offset by repeated use of it. Progress in irrigation and flood control has made water control possible for almost all of the cultivated area, producing good rice yields. Farming and irrigation have become increasingly mechanized, with more reliance placed on the use of chemical fertilizers.

      Two crops of rice a year can be grown on most cultivated land, and in the Pearl River Delta three crops are not unusual. Thus, although average yields per harvest are below the national average, annual yields exceed the average. Although food-grain crops occupy almost all of the total cultivated area, the industrial and fruit crops grown on the remaining land are of national importance. Guangdong annually produces much of China's total output of sugarcane. In tropical Guangdong a number of industrial crops are successfully raised, including rubber, sisal, palm oil, hemp, coffee, and black pepper. Other traditional agricultural products include sweet potatoes, peanuts (groundnuts), and tea. No less than 300 types of fruits are grown, among the more representative of which are citrus, litchi, pineapples, and bananas.

      Guangdong, with its long coastline, produces about one-fifth of China's fish. Fish production accounts for as much as one-third of the income of some localities. More than 400 species of saltwater fish, including yellow croaker, white herring, mackerel, golden thread, and pomfret, are caught from numerous fishing ports. Fish breeding in ponds or along riverbanks and seacoasts has flourished.

Resources and manufacturing

 In the first half of the 20th century, Guangdong experienced modern growth as Guangzhou developed into an industrial, commercial, and transportation centre. But because of the paucity of its iron deposits, Guangdong received only scant attention during the First Five-Year Plan (1953–57). The discovery of other mineral deposits, however, prompted the development of some heavier industries, including metal and petrochemical processing, the manufacture of machinery, and shipbuilding and ship repairing. A large proportion of these industries is still concentrated in Guangzhou.

      Coal reserves and manganese deposits are located mainly in the north and northeast near Shaoguan and Meizhou, although some lower-grade coal is found on the Leizhou Peninsula. Oil shale deposits have been discovered near Maoming, just north of the peninsula. Tungsten, which is associated with bismuth, molybdenum, and tin deposits, is mined near the Jiangxi border, where uranium is also found. The province has reserves of germanium and tellurium and produces some lead and antimony.

      Light industry has always been of significance in the province. Apart from handicrafts, light industry—especially food processing and the manufacture of textiles—accounts for a large section of industrial production. After three of China's first four special economic zones (special economic zone) were established in the province in the early 1980s, light industrial production grew dramatically, especially the manufacture of garments, shoes, and soft drinks. However, since the turn of the 21st century, the proportion of the output value for light industry in the provincial economy has decreased dramatically compared with other quickly developing industrial sectors, notably electronics and information technology. Other major manufactures include automobiles and motorcycles, electric machinery, petrochemicals, building materials, paper, and pharmaceuticals. A large proportion of these industries are export-oriented, notably those factories established in the three special economic zones.

Transportation

      Economically and culturally, the different regions of Guangdong are linked by the waterways of the Pearl River system. In addition, a number of coastal and international shipping routes are variously linked to more than 100 large and small ports. The leading ports, including Huangpu (Guangzhou's seaport), Zhanjiang, and Shantou, are of national significance. Water transport accounts for more than two-fifths of Guangdong's total traffic tonnage. The waterways are maintained by continually dredging, widening, and clearing the channels.

      Connections with other provinces depend principally on land transportation. Guangdong has developed one of the best highway networks in China, running primarily along river valleys. Interprovincial links, both for highways and railroads, usually run north-south. The vital Beijing-Guangzhou railroad was double-tracked in the early 1960s. Another major north-south line, from Beijing to Kowloon (Jiulong) in Hong Kong, was opened in the mid-1990s. The low priority placed on east-west transport is indicated by the absence of a railroad running parallel to the Xi River and by the fact that the Guangzhou-Zhanjiang line was only opened in 1963. However, this line, connected with a line (completed 1956) that runs northwest to Litang in Guangxi, links the province by rail with its western neighbouring province. A new railroad connecting Guangzhou with Shantou via Meizhou (north of Shantou) opened in the mid-1990s and was extended eastward into Fujian province in 2000. In addition, a number of express highways have been built connecting Guangdong's major cities and Hong Kong and Macau with neighbouring provinces, except the island province of Hainan.

      Guangdong provides a crucial link in China's domestic and international civil aviation routes. Air services connect the province to numerous international cities. To cope with the increasing traffic, Guangzhou's Baiyun airport has been enlarged and modernized.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

      The administrative system in Guangdong has undergone many changes since the establishment of communist rule in 1949. Autonomous administrative units were created in the early 1950s for areas with large ethnic minority populations. The status of Guangzhou was changed in 1954 from a centrally administered municipality (tebieshi) to a prefecture-level municipality (dijishi) under the jurisdiction of the provincial government. Guangdong is subdivided into 20 other prefecture-level municipalities in addition to Guangzhou. Guangdong is further divided into districts under the municipalities (shixiaqu), counties (xian), autonomous counties (zizhixian), and country-level municipalities (xianjishi). Rural administration was reorganized in 1958 when communization replaced the administrative villages, market towns, and municipal districts. In 1980–81 the government implemented a policy of greater decentralized economic management, and the communes lost their administrative role.

Health and welfare

      In general, hospitals, clinics, and many health stations, including maternity centres, are available at the local level. Better-equipped and better-staffed hospitals are maintained at the county and provincial levels. Medical education has been greatly expanded and includes a university devoted to Chinese medicine (acupuncture and herbal medicine). Many short-term medical-training classes are organized for health workers assigned to rural areas. The development of medical services, coupled with the general improvement in sanitation and health education, has succeeded in eliminating many previously common diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis, and filariasis.

Education

      Education, health, and other social conditions in Guangdong have generally been improved since 1949. There are now many more kindergartens and nurseries for preschool education, secondary schools, and postsecondary schools and universities. Repeated campaigns have succeeded in reducing illiteracy throughout the province. Special attention has been given to the education of the ethnic minorities. New schools, including a national minority college, have been established in minority communities. Dozens of higher learning institutions are located in different cities in the province, notably in Guangzhou, including Sun Yat-sen University (founded 1924), South China University of Technology (1952), Jinan University (1927), and Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine (1956).

Cultural life

      Guangdong has long been noted for the distinctive cultural traits of its people, as evidenced by the variety of dialects spoken. Guangdong is famous for its two types of local opera: the Yue Opera and the Chao Opera, which are popular among the Cantonese and Fujianese communities. Guangdong also has some characteristic puppet plays. The hand puppets of Guangzhou are distinguished by their size—they are between 3 to 4 feet (about 1 metre) high—and by the beautiful carving of their wooden heads. Many places in Guangdong have distinctive forms of folk art; examples are the woodcuts of Chaozhou and the stone engravings of Shunde.

      Cantonese food is widely recognized as among the most distinctive in China and is the best-known Chinese cuisine worldwide. It is characterized by the use of a variety of fresh ingredients, minimal seasoning, and quick cooking (typically, by stir-frying). Living in a coastal province, the people are particularly fond of seafood. Especially in winter, the “big-headed fish” (tench) is often served raw in a fish salad—a departure from habitual Chinese culinary practice. Some other food habits, such as the eating of newborn rats, monkey's brain, and fried snake, are regarded as revolting by most Chinese in other provinces. Chinese who have returned from Southeast Asia have popularized the chewing of betel nut wrapped in cockscomb (Celosia cristata) leaves. Special congees (rice or millet gruels) and soups with different ingredients are also often served in Cantonese cuisine.

      Guangdong is a province where lineage—an important social institution in China—has been emphasized. The importance of ancestry is often reflected in the settlement pattern of lineage groups. The inhabitants of many villages belong exclusively to one or two lineages. In such villages, community and lineage organizations are virtually identical. Conflicts between lineages were once common and often took the form of community strife, with bitter vendettas sometimes lasting for long periods of time.

      With the founding of the new regime in 1949, systematic efforts were made to change these cultural patterns in accordance with governmental ideology and policy, although in the early 1980s limited religious practice was again allowed. On the other hand, many aspects of traditional culture, especially the folk arts and the theatre, were revived and extolled.

      Guangdong has a wealth of tourist attractions. Major scenic areas include Zhaoxing Lake near Zhaoqing, Mount Danxia at Renhua, and Mount Xiqiao at Nanhai. In addition, Dinghu Mountain at Zhaoqing, Ancestral Temple (Zumiao) at Foshan, and the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall and Huanghuagang Park in Guangzhou are all noted tourist destinations.

      Many of Guangdong's handicrafts are exquisite specialties. These include red sandalwood furniture, rattan chairs, Guangdong embroidery (characterized by the use of handmade silk), drawnwork (a specialized style of needlework) from Chaozhou and Shantou, ivory carvings from Guangzhou, pottery from Shiwan, fireworks from Dongguan, and ink slabs from Zhaoqing—all of which are known throughout the country.

History

      Physically separated from the early centres of Chinese civilization in North China, Guangdong was originally occupied by non-Han ethnic groups. It was first incorporated into the Chinese empire in 222 BCE, when Shihuangdi, first emperor of the Qin dynasty, conquered the area along the Xi and Bei river valleys down to the Pearl River Delta. In 111 BCE Chinese domination was extended to the whole of what is now Guangdong, including Hainan, during the reign (141–87 BCE) of the Wudi emperor of the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). The conquest, however, was not followed by successful colonization, and Guangdong remained part of the empire only politically.

      The military and agricultural colonization of Guangdong gradually took place during the five centuries of the Sui (Sui dynasty), Tang (Tang dynasty), and Bei (Northern) Song (Song dynasty) dynasties (i.e., from 581 to 1127). This colonization, combined with increasing overseas trade channeled through Guangzhou (Canton) (Canton), led to an increase of migration into Guangdong and to the emergence of Guangzhou as a metropolis with a population of hundreds of thousands. At the end of the period, however, Guangdong was still occupied predominantly by its original ethnic population. The region was viewed as a semicivilized frontier, and disgraced officials often were exiled there.

      The southward thrust of the Han was greatly intensified from 1126, when the Juchen of the Jin dynasty captured the Bei Song capital at what is now Kaifeng, forcing the Song to migrate south. Another major population movement followed a century and a half later as China fell to the Mongols (Mongol). These migrations marked the beginning of effective Han occupation and the rapid cultural development of Guangdong. Especially after the 16th century the growth of population was so fast that by the late 17th century the Guangdong region had become a source of emigration. Migrants from Guangdong moved first to Guangxi, Sichuan, and Taiwan and then in the mid-19th century began to pour into Southeast Asia and North America, and some were also taken as indentured labourers to British, French, and Dutch colonies.

      Since the mid-19th century, Guangdong has produced a number of prominent political and military, as well as intellectual, leaders. Many of the leaders of political movements during this period—such as Hong Xiuquan, leader of the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64); Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao of the Reform Movement (1898); and Sun Yat-sen(Sun Zhongshan), who led the republican Chinese Revolution of 1911–12—had associations with Guangdong.

      In the 1920s Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) made Guangzhou the base from which his program to reunify China under Nationalist (Nationalist Party) rule was launched. Foreign privileges in the city were reduced, and modernization of the economy was undertaken. The almost simultaneous rise of the communist movement and the advent of Japanese aggression in the 1930s, however, thwarted the plans of Chiang and the Nationalists. From 1939 to 1945 the Japanese occupied southern Guangdong province. After World War II the conflict between the communists and the Nationalists erupted into full-scale civil war and continued until the communist victory in late 1949.

Yue-man Yeung Chen-tung Chang Victor C. Falkenheim Ed.

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