fuel cell

a device that produces a continuous electric current directly from the oxidation of a fuel, as that of hydrogen by oxygen.

[1920-25]

* * *

Device that converts chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity (see electrochemistry).

Fuel cells are intrinsically more efficient than most other energy-conversion devices. Electrolytic chemical reactions cause electrons to be released on one electrode and flow through an external circuit to a second electrode. Whereas in batteries the electrodes are the source of the active ingredients, which are altered and depleted during the reaction, in fuel cells the gas or liquid fuel (often hydrogen, methyl alcohol, hydrazine, or a simple hydrocarbon) is supplied continuously to one electrode and oxygen or air to the other from an external source. So, as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied, the fuel cell will not run down or require recharging. Fuel cells can be used in place of virtually any other source of electricity. They are especially being developed for use in electric automobiles, in the hope of achieving enormous reductions in pollution.

* * *

Introduction

 any of a class of devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity by electrochemical reactions (electrochemical reaction). A fuel cell resembles a battery in many respects, but it can supply electrical energy over a much longer period of time. This is because a fuel cell is continuously supplied with fuel and air (or oxygen) from an external source, whereas a battery contains only a limited amount of fuel material and oxidant that are depleted with use. For this reason fuel cells have been used for decades in space probes, satellites, and manned spacecraft. Around the world thousands of stationary fuel cell systems have been installed in utility power plants, hospitals, schools, hotels, and office buildings for both primary and backup power; many waste-treatment plants use fuel cell technology to generate power from the methane gas produced by decomposing garbage. Numerous municipalities in Japan, Europe, and the United States lease fuel cell vehicles for public transportation and for use by service personnel. Personal fuel cell vehicles were first sold in Germany in 2004.

      The United States government and several state governments, most notably California, have launched programs to encourage the development and use of hydrogen fuel cells in transportation and other applications. While the technology has proven to be workable, efforts to make it commercially competitive have been less successful because of concern with the explosive power of hydrogen, the relatively low energy density of hydrogen, and the high cost of platinum catalysts used to create an electric current by separating electrons from hydrogen atoms.

Principles of operation

From chemical energy to electrical energy

 A fuel cell (actually a group of cells) has essentially the same kinds of components as a battery. As in the latter, each cell of a fuel cell system has a matching pair of electrodes. These are the anode, which supplies electrons, and the cathode, which absorbs electrons. Both electrodes must be immersed in and separated by an electrolyte, which may be a liquid or a solid but which must in either case conduct ions (ion) between the electrodes in order to complete the chemistry of the system. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is supplied to the anode, where it is oxidized, producing hydrogen ions and electrons. An oxidizer, such as oxygen, is supplied to the cathode, where the hydrogen ions from the anode absorb electrons (electron) from the latter and react with the oxygen to produce water. The difference between the respective energy levels at the electrodes ( electromotive force) is the voltage per unit cell. The amount of electric current available to the external circuit depends on the chemical activity and amount of the substances supplied as fuels. The current-producing process continues for as long as there is a supply of reactants, for the electrodes and electrolyte of a fuel cell, unlike those in a regular battery, are designed to remain unchanged by chemical reaction.

      A practical fuel cell is necessarily a complex system. It must have features to boost the activity of the fuel, pumps and blowers, fuel-storage containers, and a variety of sophisticated sensors and controls with which to monitor and adjust the operation of the system. The operating capability and lifetime of each of these system design features may limit the performance of the fuel cell.

      As in the case of other electrochemical systems, fuel cell operation is dependent on temperature. The chemical activity of the fuels and the value of the activity promoters, or catalysts (catalyst), are reduced by low temperatures (e.g., 0 °C, or 32 °F). Very high temperatures, on the other hand, improve the activity factors but may reduce the functioning lifetime of the electrodes, blowers, construction materials, and sensors. Each type of fuel cell thus has an operating-temperature design range, and a significant departure from this range is likely to diminish both capacity and lifetime.

      A fuel cell, like a battery, is inherently a high-efficiency device. Unlike internal-combustion machines, in which a fuel is burned and gas is expanded to do work, the fuel cell converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy. Because of this fundamental characteristic, fuel cells may convert fuels to useful energy at an efficiency as high as 60 percent, whereas the internal-combustion engine is limited to efficiencies near 40 percent or less. The high efficiency means that much less fuel and a smaller storage container are needed for a fixed energy requirement. For this reason, fuel cells are an attractive power supply for space missions of limited duration and for other situations where fuel is very expensive and difficult to supply. They also emit no noxious gases such as nitrogen dioxide and produce virtually no noise during operation, making them contenders for local municipal power-generation stations.

      A fuel cell can be designed to operate reversibly. In other words, a hydrogen-oxygen cell that produces water as a product can be made to regenerate hydrogen and oxygen. Such a regenerative fuel cell entails not only a revision of electrode design but also the introduction of special means for separating the product gases. Eventually, power modules comprising this type of high-efficiency fuel cell, used in conjunction with large arrays of thermal collectors for solar heating or other solar energy systems, may be utilized to keep energy-cycle costs lower in longer-lived equipment. Major automobile companies and electrical-machinery manufacturing companies worldwide have announced their intention to produce or use fuel cells commercially in the next few years.

Designing fuel cell systems

      Because a fuel cell produces electricity continuously from fuel, it has many output characteristics similar to those of any other direct-current (direct current) (DC) generator system. A DC generator system can be operated in either of two ways from a planning viewpoint: (1) fuel may be burned in a heat engine to drive an electric generator, which makes power available and current flow, or (2) fuel may be converted to a form suitable for a fuel cell, which then generates power directly.

      A wide range of liquid and solid fuels may be used for a heat-engine system, while hydrogen, reformed natural gas (i.e., methane that has been converted to hydrogen-rich gas), and methanol are the primary fuels available for current fuel cells. If fuels such as natural gas must be altered in composition for a fuel cell, the net efficiency of the fuel cell system is reduced, and much of its efficiency advantage is lost. Such an “indirect” fuel cell system would still display an efficiency advantage as high as 20 percent. Nonetheless, to be competitive with modern thermal generating plants, a fuel cell system must attain a good design balance with low internal electrical losses, corrosion-resistant electrodes, an electrolyte of constant composition, low catalyst costs, and ecologically acceptable fuels.

      The first technical challenge that must be overcome in developing practical fuel cells is to design and assemble an electrode that allows the gaseous or liquid fuel to contact a catalyst and an electrolyte at a group of solid sites that do not change very rapidly. Thus, a three-phase reaction situation is typical on an electrode that must also serve as an electrical conductor. Such can be provided by thin sheets that have (1) a waterproof layer usually with polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), (2) an active layer of a catalyst (e.g., platinum, gold, or a complex organometallic compound on a carbon base), and (3) a conducting layer to carry the current generated in or out of the electrode. If the electrode floods with electrolyte, the operation rate will become very slow at best. If the fuel breaks through to the electrolyte side of the electrode, the electrolyte compartment may become filled with gas or vapour, inviting an explosion should the oxidizing gas also reach the electrolyte compartment or the fuel gas enter the oxidizing gas compartment. In short, to maintain stable operation in a working fuel cell, careful design, construction, and pressure control are essential. Because fuel cells have been used on Apollo (Apollo program) lunar flights as well as on all other U.S. orbital manned space missions (e.g., those of Gemini and the space shuttle), it is evident that all three requirements can be met reliably.

      Providing a fuel cell support system of pumps, blowers, sensors, and controls for maintaining fuel rates, electric current load, gas and liquid pressures, and fuel cell temperature remains a major engineering design challenge. Significant improvements in the service life of these components under adverse conditions would contribute to the wider use of fuel cells.

Types of fuel cells

      Various types of fuel cells have been developed. They are generally classified on the basis of the electrolyte used, because the electrolyte determines the operating temperature of a system and in part the kind of fuel that can be employed.

Alkaline fuel cells

      These are devices that, by definition, have an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. The fuel is almost always hydrogen gas, with oxygen (or oxygen in air) as the oxidizer. However, zinc or aluminum could be used as an anode if the by-product oxides were efficiently removed and the metal fed continuously as a strip or as a powder. Fuel cells generally operate at less than 100 °C (212 °F) and are constructed of metal and certain plastics. Electrodes are made of carbon and a metal such as nickel. Water, as a reaction product, must be removed from the system, usually by evaporation from the electrolyte either through the electrodes or in a separate evaporator. The operating support system presents a significant design problem. The strong, hot alkaline electrolyte attacks most plastics and tends to penetrate structural seams and joints. This problem has been overcome, however, and alkaline fuel cells are used on the U.S. space shuttle orbiters. Overall efficiencies range from 30 to 80 percent, depending on the fuel and oxidizer and on the basis for the calculation.

Phosphoric acid fuel cells

      Such cells have an orthophosphoric acid electrolyte that allows operation up to about 200 °C (400 °F). They can use a hydrogen fuel contaminated with carbon dioxide and an oxidizer of air or oxygen. The electrodes consist of catalyzed carbon and are arranged in pairs set back-to-back to create a series generation circuit. The framing structure for this assembly of cells is made of graphite, which markedly raises the cost. The higher temperature and aggressive hot phosphate create structural design problems, particularly for joints, supporting pumps, and sensors. phosphoric acid fuel cells have been proposed and tested on a limited scale for local municipal power stations and for remote-site generators.

Molten carbonate fuel cells

      Fuel cells of this type operate quite differently from those so far discussed. The fuel consists of a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide generated from water and a fossil fuel. The electrolyte is molten potassium lithium carbonate, which requires an operating temperature of about 650 °C (1,200 °F). Warming up to operational temperatures may take several hours, making these cells unsuitable for vehicles. In most cases, the electrodes are metallic-based, and the containment system is made of metals and special engineering plastics. Such combinations of materials are anticipated to be relatively inexpensive, perhaps only three times that of the alkaline fuel cell and less than that of the phosphoric acid variety. The cells combine the hydrogen and carbon monoxide first with the carbonate electrolyte and then with oxidizing oxygen to produce a reaction product of water vapour and carbon dioxide.

      Molten carbonate fuel cells are expected to be useful in both local and larger power stations. Efficiencies of 45 percent may be attained where fossil fuels are already used. Operation at high temperatures creates a design problem for long-lived system parts and joints, especially if the cells must be heated and cooled frequently. The toxic fuel and high temperature together make power plant safety an area of special concern in engineering design and testing as well as in commercial operation.

Solid oxide fuel cells

      In some ways solid oxide fuel cells are similar to molten carbonate devices. Most of the cell materials, however, are special ceramics with some nickel. The electrolyte is an ion-conducting oxide such as zirconia treated with yttria. The fuel for these experimental cells is expected to be hydrogen combined with carbon monoxide, just as for molten carbonate cells. While internal reactions would be different in terms of path, the cell products would be water vapour and carbon dioxide. Because of the high operating temperatures (900 to 1,000 °C, or 1,600 to 1,800 °F), the electrode reactions proceed very readily. As in the case of the molten carbonate fuel cell, there are many engineering challenges involved in creating a long-lived containment system for cells that operate at such a high-temperature range.

      Solid oxide fuel cells would be designed for use in central power-generation stations where temperature variation could be controlled efficiently and where fossil fuels would be available. The system would in most cases be associated with the so-called bottoming steam (turbine) cycle—i.e., the hot gas product (at 1,000 °C) of the fuel cell could be used to generate steam to run a turbine and extract more power from heat energy. Overall efficiencies of 60 percent might be possible.

Solid polymer electrolyte fuel cells

      A cell of this sort is built around an ion-conducting membrane such as Nafion (trademark for a perfluorosulfonic acid membrane). The electrodes are catalyzed carbon, and several construction alignments are feasible. Solid polymer electrolyte cells function well (as attested to by their performance in Gemini spacecraft), but cost estimates are high for the total system compared with the types described above. Engineering or electrode design improvements could change this disadvantage.

Development of fuel cells

      The general concept of a fuel battery, or fuel cell, dates back to the early days of electrochemistry. British physicist William Grove (Grove, Sir William Robert) used hydrogen and oxygen as fuels catalyzed on platinum electrodes in 1839. During the late 1880s two British chemists—Carl Langer and German-born Ludwig Mond (Mond, Ludwig)—developed a fuel cell with a longer service life by employing a porous nonconductor to hold the electrolyte. It was subsequently found that a carbon base permitted the use of much less platinum, and the German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald (Ostwald, Wilhelm) proposed, as a substitute for heat-engine generators, electrochemical cells in which carbon would be oxidized to carbon dioxide by oxygen. During the early years of the 20th century, Fritz Haber (Haber, Fritz) and Walther H. Nernst (Nernst, Walther Hermann) in Germany and Edmond Bauer in France experimented with cells using a solid electrolyte. Limited success and high costs, however, suppressed interest in continuing developmental efforts.

      From 1932 until well after World War II, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon (Bacon, Francis Thomas) and his coworkers at the University of Cambridge worked on creating practical hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells with an alkaline electrolyte. Research resulted in the invention of gas-diffusion electrodes in which the fuel gas on one side is effectively kept in controlled contact with an aqueous electrolyte on the other side. By mid-century O.K. Davtyan of the Soviet Union had published the results of experimental work on solid electrolytes for high-temperature fuel cells and for both high- and low-temperature alkaline electrolyte hydrogen-oxygen cells.

      The need for highly efficient and stable power supplies for space satellites and manned spacecraft created exciting new opportunities for fuel cell development during the 1950s and '60s. Molten carbonate cells with magnesium oxide pressed against the electrodes were demonstrated by J.A.A. Ketelaar and G.H.J. Broers of The Netherlands, while the very thin Teflon-bonded, carbon-metal hybrid electrode was devised by other researchers. Many other technological advances, including the development of new materials, played a crucial role in the emergence of today's practical fuel cells. Further improvements in electrode materials and construction, combined with the rising costs of fossil fuels, are expected to make fuel cells an increasingly attractive alternative power source, especially in Japan and other countries that have meagre nonrenewable energy resources. At the beginning of the 21st century, many electrical-equipment manufacturers were developing power-generation equipment based on fuel cell technology.

      The American military is funding development of small fuel cells for soldiers to carry in their backpacks in order to power various electronic devices, for powering small pilotless reconnaissance aircraft, and for powering robots to clear minefields.

Brooke Schumm, Jr.

Additional Reading

Stanley W. Angrist, Direct Energy Conversion, 4th ed. (1982), provides a historical introduction and overview. Other general references include James Larminie and Andrew Dicks, Fuel Cell Systems Explained, 2nd ed. (2003); Gregor Hoogers (ed.), Fuel Cell Technology Handbook (2003); and Wolf Vielstich, Arnold Lamm, and Hubert A. Gasteiger (eds.), Handbook of Fuel Cells: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications, 4 vol. (2003).Brooke Schumm, Jr.

* * *