Francis I

1. 1494-1547, king of France 1515-47.

2. 1768-1835, first emperor of Austria 1804-35; as Francis II, last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire 1792-1806.

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I

French François

born Sept. 12, 1494, Cognac, France

died March 31, 1547, Rambouillet

King of France (1515–47).

The cousin and son-in-law of Louis XII, Francis succeeded to the throne in 1515. Soon after his coronation he rode off to the Italian Wars (1515–16) and recovered the Duchy of Milan. He was a Renaissance patron of the arts, a humanist, and a popular king who traveled throughout France, curtailing abuses by nobles and providing games and processions for the people. All this ended with the election in 1519 of Charles V as Holy Roman emperor. Charles was already king of Spain, and his lands now encircled France. Francis vainly sought an alliance with Henry VIII on the Field of Cloth of Gold, then waged a series of wars with Charles from 1521. Francis was taken captive in 1525 and languished in prison, refusing to accede to Charles's exorbitant demands, until in 1526 the French ambassadors concluded a treaty. The war with Charles resumed in 1536, and one of Francis's last diplomatic achievements was an alliance with the Turks against the emperor.

Francis I, portrait by Pierre Dumonstier, after a drawing by Jean Clouet; in the ...

Courtesy of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris

II

German Franz

born Dec. 8, 1708, Nancy, Duchy of Lorraine

died Aug. 18, 1765, Innsbruck, Austria

Holy Roman emperor (1745–65).

The son of the duke of Lorraine, he succeeded to the duchy in 1729 (as Francis Stephen). In 1736 he married Maria Theresa, heiress to Emperor Charles VI, who agreed to the marriage on the condition that Francis cede Lorraine to Stanislaw I of Poland, in compensation for which Francis was granted Tuscany (1737). He served with Maria Theresa as coregent (1740–45) and was elected emperor during the War of the Austrian Succession. He was overshadowed by his wife during his rule but was remembered for his cultural interests.

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▪ Holy Roman emperor

born Dec. 8, 1708, Nancy, Duchy of Lorraine

died Aug. 18, 1765, Innsbruck, Austria

      Holy Roman emperor from Sept. 13, 1745; he was duke of Lorraine (as Francis Stephen) from 1729 to 1735 and grand duke of Tuscany from 1737. Although nominally outranking his wife, Maria Theresa, archduchess of Austria and queen of Hungary and Bohemia, the capable but easygoing Francis always was overshadowed by her strong personality.

      From 1723 Francis, whose dynasty in Lorraine was closely connected with the Austrian Habsburgs, lived at the Viennese court of the Holy Roman emperor Charles VI. His marriage to Maria Theresa, who was Charles's heiress, took place on Feb. 12, 1736. Charles consented to it only on condition that Francis make the sacrifice required by the French in order to end the War of the Polish Succession, namely, the cession of Lorraine to Stanisław Leszczyński (Stanisław I), for whom the French had failed to secure Poland. In compensation, Francis was allowed to succeed the childless Gian Gastone, last of the Medici grand dukes of Tuscany. These arrangements were confirmed by the 1738 Treaty of Vienna.

      When Maria Theresa succeeded Charles VI (Oct. 20, 1740), she immediately appointed her husband coregent. During the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48), Maria Theresa, apprehensive for Francis' life, refused his repeated demands to be allowed to defend her inheritance by leading the Austrian Army. During the war he was elected Holy Roman emperor after the death of the emperor Charles VII (the elector Charles Albert of Bavaria), who was one of his wife's chief adversaries. The influence of Francis in government was inconsiderable except in economic matters. He is better remembered for his cultural interests. Maria Theresa mourned his death throughout the 15 years by which she survived him.

▪ duke of Brittany

born May 11, 1414, Vannes, Fr.

died July 19, 1450

      duke of Brittany (from 1442), son of John V (or VI). He had his brother Gilles thrown into prison and put to death for allegedly spying for the English, with whom he warred (1449–50). The king of France intervened and expelled the English from Normandy.

▪ king of France

Introduction

also called (until 1515)  Francis of Angoulême , French  François d'Angoulême 

born Sept. 12, 1494, Cognac, France

died March 31, 1547, Rambouillet

 king of France (1515–47), the first of five monarchs of the Angoulême branch of the House of Valois. A Renaissance patron of the arts and scholarship, a humanist, and a knightly king, he waged campaigns in Italy (1515–16) and fought a series of wars with the Holy Roman Empire (1521–44).

Early years

      Francis was the son of Charles de Valois-Orleáns, comte d'Angoulême, and Louise Of Savoy. On the accession of his cousin Louis XII in 1498, Francis became heir presumptive and was given the Duchy of Valois (Valois Dynasty). With his sister Marguerite (Margaret Of Angoulême), he was raised by his mother, who had been widowed at the age of 20 and whom he deeply revered; he knelt whenever he spoke to her. No one had as much power over him as these two women. Idolized, he grew up following his own whims, without discipline and more infatuated with chivalrous romances, songs, and violent exercise than with classical studies. He was greatly admired by the gay, young circle of his mother's cultured court for his athletic build and the elegance of his demeanour and manners. His need for female companions stemmed from this upbringing, as did his lack of realism and his chivalrous imagination.

      Louis XII, distrustful of Francis, did not allow him to dabble in affairs of state but sent him off at the age of 18 to the frontiers, which had been attacked in force. There, Francis learned more about warfare and, being of a sensual nature, about the licentiousness of camp life than about how to govern the state or, even more, to govern himself. Shortly before his death, Louis XII married him to Claude (Claude Of France), his 15-year-old daughter. On Jan. 1, 1515, at the age of 20, Francis became king of France.

      His quick and shrewd mind, his amazing memory, and his universal curiosity compensated for his inexperience. But, because he was outgoing and trusting and incapable of dissembling, he was always a bad politician. The pomp of the Reims coronation, the sumptuous cortege of the solemn entry into Paris, and the lavish feasts revealed his love of ceremony and also pleased the people of Paris, who had been disheartened by a long succession of morose and sickly sovereigns.

Promise of a great reign

      Louis XII had left an army prepared to reconquer the Duchy of Milan. This ill-fated dream of recovering his great-grandmother Valentina Visconti's heritage—which had been lost, retaken, then lost again—fascinated Francis in his turn. Ambitious for glory and urged on by turbulent young nobles, he made sure of peace with his neighbours, entrusted the regency to his mother, and galloped off to Italy.

      At the bloody Battle of Marignano (Marignano, Battle of), charging at the head of his cavalry, he defeated the reportedly invincible Swiss mercenaries of Duke Massimiliano Sforza and his ally Pope Leo X. After the victory, by his own wish, he was knighted by the captain who had fought most bravely: Bayard, the most famous chevalier of his time.

      The Pope received his conqueror in Bologna. Surrounded by his glittering pontifical court and by his famous artists, he dazzled Francis with concerts, banquets, and theatrical performances. The Pope offered him a Madonna by Raphael and negotiated a concordat that returned to the Pope the benefices of the rich church of France, while the nomination of prelates was assigned to the King, who was desirous of strengthening his authority over a clergy grown too acquisitive and independent.

      Buoyed up by a victor's prestige, the King spoke as a sovereign, using for the first time the formula of absolute power: “For such is our pleasure.” Prosperity permitted him to grant a princely pension to Sforza, as well as to Leonardo da Vinci and other artists who brought masterpieces to his court. He also signed a perpetual peace treaty with the Swiss and bought back Tournai from Henry VIII of England. And, as a pledge of unalterable friendship, the first-born royal child, Princess Louise, was affianced to the Habsburg prince Charles (Charles V), heir to the Netherlands and, at 16, the new king of Spain.

      Everything forecast a great reign. Francis I formed a brilliant and scholarly court at which poets, musicians, and learned men mingled with rough noblemen from the provinces whom idleness was making dangerous. He welcomed lovely ladies at court, saying, “A court without women is a year without spring and a spring without roses.” The arts, elegance, and chivalrous gallantry served to refine the licentious manners of the court.

      The frail queen Claude, gentle and pious, bore a child each year. Francis respected her and sought her advice. In the meantime, he loved the dark-haired comtesse de Châteaubriant, without, however, foregoing nocturnal escapades with his childhood companions, who had now become his ministers and his favourites.

      Francis toured France tirelessly, showing himself to people who had never seen a king. He was constantly travelling on horseback, winter and summer, whether well or ill. He became familiar with everything: men, roads, rivers, resources, and needs. During his travels, he emptied prisons, curtailed the abuses of judicial powers by the nobles, lavished largesse on the people, and provided games and processions for them, speaking to them in his grand manner, warmly and openly: “My friends, my beloved ones . . . .”

      Popular, happy, the father of two sons, he was the most powerful sovereign in all Christendom when, in 1519, the German emperor Maximilian died. The election as emperor of Maximilian's grandson Charles spelled ruin for Francis I, for Charles, who was already king of Spain, now encircled France with his possessions.

Rivalry with Charles V

      Nineteen years old, secretive, cool-headed, and a clever politician, the Emperor had his mind set on a universal monarchy. His chief obstacle was the King of France. A mortal hatred emerged from this rivalry, leading to 27 years of savage warfare, interrupted by truces that were invariably violated. In 1520, on the Field of Cloth of Gold (Cloth of Gold, Field of) near Calais, where both displayed unprecedented magnificence, Francis vainly sought an alliance with Henry VIII.

      Hostilities between Charles V and France began in 1521 in the north and in the Pyrenees, while the two brothers of the King's mistress were losing Milan. The soldiers remained unpaid, and the army was disintegrating. The King, unconcerned, arose late, paid little attention to his council, and gave orders without seeing that they were carried out. Money disappeared into thin air. A few paymasters were hanged, though in vain.

      In 1523 the King demanded the return to the French state, according to law, of the vast provinces that the great feudal duke Charles de Bourbon (Bourbon, Charles III, 8e duc de) thought he had inherited from his wife. Incensed, Bourbon turned traitor and joined the Emperor's service, claiming that the French, weary of the prodigality of their sovereign, would rise up on an appeal from him. Commanding the imperial army, he invaded Provence, was driven back near Marseille, and withdrew toward Italy. Francis I was pursuing him when he learned of the death of his wife Claude, at the age of 24, exhausted from seven pregnancies. The death of his second daughter followed soon after. Meanwhile, the English and the Germans were advancing in the north. In vain, his mother begged him to return: “Our good angel has abandoned us. Your horoscope forecasts disaster!” At the Battle of Pavia (Pavia, Battle of) in 1525, defeated and wounded, he was taken prisoner. “Madame, to inform you of the rest of my misfortune, I have nothing left to me save my honour and my life.”

      As the price for the King's freedom, the Emperor demanded one-third of France, the renunciation of France's claim to Italy, and restitution to Bourbon of his fiefs, with the addition of Provence. “I am resolved to endure prison for as long as God wills rather than accept terms injurious to my kingdom!” replied the King.

      Imprisoned in a dismal tower in Madrid, the recluse composed melancholy poems, songs, and letters to his subjects, heartrending in their humility and their tender nobility. The mortifying defeat, the dangerous situation of his country, and the confinement aggravated his habitual migraines, the consequence of old wounds and of newly contracted syphilis. When he was struck down by an abscess in his head, his people, loyal in bad fortune as in good, prayed for him. The Archbishop of Tournon said a mass at his bedside, in the presence of his sister Marguerite, who had hastened to Madrid.

Decline and death

      Although Francis finally recovered, he did not cease to suffer. His personality changed. Sudden reversals of mood, excesses of severity and clemency, inconsistencies in his statesmanship and in his personal behaviour marked him; his mind sometimes wandered.

      The Emperor persisted in his exorbitant claims. Resigned to die in prison, the King abdicated in favour of his eldest son. France judged this abdication to be the worst possible move. The Dauphin was too young; the country was lost without its leader. No matter what the cost, he would have to return home. The French ambassadors, with nominal cooperation by the King, concluded the harsh Treaty of Madrid (Madrid, Treaty of). He signed it in January 1526, declaring that the word and signature of an imprisoned knight were valueless and that it was beyond his power to dismember his kingdom. Still bedridden, he was betrothed by proxy to Eleonora, widow of the King of Portugal and sister of his jailer. The wedding was to seal the reconciliation of the two rulers and was to follow execution of the treaty. As a last condition, Francis had to deliver his two eldest sons, seven and eight years old, as hostages.

      The surrendered provinces refused to divorce themselves from France. The Emperor, furious with the perjured King, held the children prisoner for four years. His army plundered Italy and captured Pope Clement VII. Francis could not openly engage in the war that was again flaring up everywhere against Charles V. Doomed to disavow his promises to his secret allies, he fled from their envoys, either going on hunting trips from forest to forest or travelling around the country, building fairylike castles that he occupied only fleetingly and founding the free and secular Collège de France (France, Collège de). Anne, duchesse d'Étampes, “the most beautiful of learned ladies, and the most learned of beautiful ladies,” replaced Madame de Châteaubriant, more as a companion than mistress.

      Their raging hatred impelled Charles and Francis to challenge each other to a duel, which was, however, prevented. During one of the King's relapses, his mother reached an agreement with Margaret Of Austria, the Emperor's aunt, to stop this deadly struggle. The ensuing Treaty of Cambrai (Cambrai, Treaty of) softened that of Madrid. In order to get his children back, Francis had to abandon his allies, give up Italy, and pay 2,000,000 gold crowns. His foolish expenditures had emptied the treasury, and the ransom was collected only with difficulty. Finally, however, the little princes were able to attend their father's political marriage to Eleonora in 1530.

      In 1531 the King's mother succumbed to the plague. Marguerite, having married the King of Navarre, lived at some distance. The King, grown tragically old, in 1533 presided over the marriage of his second son, Henry, to Catherine de Médicis, the niece of Clement VII.

      When religious strife broke out in France, the King—tolerant, an epicurean, an admirer of the Dutch Humanist Erasmus, and patron of the great satirist Rabelais, as well as a reader of Philipp Melanchthon, the Reformer—tried to moderate the growing fanaticism. Both his sister and his mistress supported the Reformation, whereas his ministers were zealous Catholics. But the Reformers were considered republicans, and the burnings at the stake began. For five years he delayed the extermination of the Waldensian sect, only signing the order without reading it when on his deathbed.

      The war with Charles V was resumed in 1536. Bereavements within the family came in quick succession. The Dauphin died at the age of 18—poisoned by Charles V, it was believed. The third son, the most dearly loved, died of the plague. One of Francis' last diplomatic achievements was an alliance with the Turks (Ottoman Empire) against the Emperor.

      Henry VIII, by turns friend or enemy, died in January 1547. Francis, younger by two years, still had time to found the port of Le Hâvre (Le Havre), to send Jacques Cartier (Cartier, Jacques) to Canada, to reform the judicial system, and to decree the use of French in all legal documents.

      Wasting away with fever, dying, he wandered from castle to castle, carried on a litter. Finally, on March 31, 1547, the knight-king died. Notwithstanding the personal afflictions of the last 20 years of his life, Francis was to his countrymen and to the succeeding generation le grand roi François.

Marcelle Vioux

Additional Reading

François Mézeray, Histoire de France . . . , 3 vol. (1643–51), interesting and invaluable recollections by a contemporary historian; Gabriel H. Gaillard, Histoire de François Premier, 8 vol. (1769), profound scholarship; Marguerite de Navarre, Lettres de Marguerite d'Angoulême . . . reine de Navarre, 2 vol. (1841–42), stories, poetry, and letters written to her brother, Francis I; Louise de Savoy, Comptes de Louise de Savoie . . . (1905), the journal (ending in 1522)—of the mother of Francis I most informative on their family relationship; Jean B. Hauréau, François I^er et sa cour (1853), a minutely documented study by curator of manuscripts at the Bibliothèque Nationale; Francois Auguste Marie Mignet, Rivalité de François I^er et de Charles V (1875), a very precise account of the long and tragic confrontation of the two monarchs for supremacy in Europe; Francis Hackett, Francis the First (1934, reprinted 1968), one of the few book-length accounts in English of the life and times of Francis I.

▪ king of the Two Sicilies

born Aug. 14, 1777, Naples

died Nov. 8, 1830, Naples

      king of the Two Sicilies from 1825.

      The son of Ferdinand I and Maria Carolina, Francis at first inclined toward liberalism. After the introduction of the constitution of 1812, which provided for a bicameral government along British lines, he was appointed vicario, or regent, of Naples. Francis sympathized with the Carbonari uprising of 1820; he opposed the decision of the Congress of Laibach (1821) to send Austrian troops to restore the absolutist monarchy in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. After witnessing the success of the reactionary forces in Naples, however, his outlook changed. After succeeding to the throne upon his father's death (Jan. 4, 1825), he disavowed his previous liberalism, becoming even more reactionary than his father. He disbanded the National Guard, requested an extension of Austrian garrisoning in the kingdom until 1827, and savagely repressed, with the aid of Guglielmo del Carretto, a revolutionary outbreak in Cilento (1828).

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