dolomite

—dolomitic /dol'euh mit"ik/, adj.

/doh"leuh muyt', dol"euh-/, n.

1. a very common mineral, calcium magnesium carbonate, CaMg(CO₃)₂, occurring in crystals and in masses.

2. a rock consisting essentially or largely of this mineral.

[1785-95; < F, named after D. de Dolom(ieu) (1750-1801), French mineralogist; see -ITE¹]

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Type of limestone, the carbonate fraction of which is dominated by the mineral dolomite, calcium magnesium carbonate CaMg(CO₃)₂.

The carbonate mineral dolomite occurs in marbles, talc schists, and other magnesium-rich metamorphic rocks. It occurs in hydrothermal veins, in cavities in carbonate rocks, and less often in various sedimentary rocks as a cement. It is most common as a rock-forming mineral in carbonate rocks.

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▪ mineral

Introduction

      type of limestone, the carbonate fraction of which is dominated by the mineral dolomite, calcium magnesium carbonate [CaMg(CO₃)₂].

General considerations

      Along with calcite and aragonite, dolomite makes up approximately 2 percent of the Earth's crust. The bulk of the dolomite constitutes dolostone formations that occur as thick units of great areal extent in many sequences of chiefly marine strata. (The rock dolostone is referred to by only the mineral name—i.e., dolomite—by many geologists.) The Dolomite Alps of northern Italy are a well-known example. Other relatively common occurrences of the mineral dolomite are in dolomite marble and dolomite-rich veins. It also occurs in the rare igneous rock known as dolomite carbonatite.

      From the standpoint of its origin, the dolomite of dolostones is one of the most interesting of all the major rock-forming minerals. As discussed below, a large percentage of the dolomite in thick marine dolostone units is thought by many geologists and geochemists to have been formed by replacement of CaCO₃ sediment rather than by direct precipitation.

Chemical composition

      Ferrous iron commonly substitutes for some of the magnesium in dolomite, and a complete series very likely extends between dolomite and ankerite [∼CaFe(CO₃)₂]. Manganese also substitutes for magnesium, but typically only to the extent of a few percent and in most cases only along with iron. Other cations known to substitute—albeit in only relatively minor amounts—within the dolomite structure are barium and lead for calcium and zinc and cobalt for magnesium.

      Nearly all the natural elements have been recorded as present in at least trace quantities in dolostones. It is, however, unclear which ones actually occur in the dolomite; some of them may occur within other mineral constituents of the analyzed rocks. Indeed, only a few of these elements—e.g., strontium, rubidium, boron, and uranium (U)—are known definitely to occur within the dolomite structure.

      Dolomite effervesces with dilute hydrochloric acid, but slowly rather than vigorously as calcite does; in general, it appears to smolder slowly, and in some cases it does so only after the rock has been powdered or the acid warmed, or both. This difference in the character of the effervescence serves as the test usually used to distinguish dolomite from calcite in the field. In the laboratory, staining techniques, also based on chemical properties or typical compositions, may be used to distinguish between these minerals. The stains generally employed are especially valuable for investigating rocks made up of alternate lamellae of dolostone and limestone composition.

crystal structure

      In a somewhat simplified way, the dolomite structure can be described as resembling the calcite structure but with magnesium ions substituted for calcium ions in every other cation layer. Thus, the dolomite structure can be viewed as ideally comprising a calcium layer, a CO₃ layer, a magnesium layer, another CO₃ layer, and so forth. However, as described for the potassium feldspars, dolomites—unlike calcites—may also exhibit orderdisorder relationships. This results because the purity of some of the cation layers may be less than ideal—i.e., some of the “calcium layers” may contain magnesium, and some of the “magnesium layers” may contain some calcium. The term protodolomite is frequently applied to Holocene dolomites (those formed during approximately the last 10,000 years) that have less than ideal dolomite structures. Most dolomites of ancient dolostones, however, appear to be well ordered. Modifications that may reflect diverse calcium-versus-magnesium layering aberrations are treated extensively in professional literature.

Physical properties

 Dolomite crystals are colourless, white, buff-coloured, pinkish, or bluish. Granular dolomite in rocks tends to be light to dark gray, tan, or white. Dolomite crystals range from transparent to translucent, but dolomite grains in rocks are typically translucent or nearly opaque. The lustre ranges from subvitreous to dull. Dolomite, like calcite, cleaves (cleavage) into six-sided polyhedrons with diamond-shaped faces. Relations between lamellar twinning and cleavage planes of dolomite, however, differ from those of calcite (see figure—>), and this difference may be used to distinguish the two minerals in coarse-grained rocks such as marbles. Dolomite has a Mohs hardness of 3¹/₂ to 4 and a specific gravity of 2.85 ± 0.01. Some dolomites are triboluminescent.

      The dolomite of most dolostones is granular, with the individual grains ranging in size from microscopic up to a few millimetres across. Most dolomite marbles are coarsely granular with individual grains ranging between two and six millimetres (.079 and .24 inch) in greatest dimension. Vein dolomite grains may be up to several centimetres across. Saddle-shaped groups of dolomite crystals, most of which occur on fracture surfaces, measure from 0.5 to 2 centimetres (0.20 to 0.79 inch) across.

Origin and occurrence

      Dolomite occurs widely as the major constituent of dolostones and dolomite marbles. As mentioned above, the origin of dolomite-rich rocks in marine sequences remains an unresolved problem of petrogenesis.

      Dolomite—actually protodolomite—is known to have formed fairly recently in restricted environments such as on supratidal flats that occur in The Bahamas and Florida Keys. Also, no dolomite has been synthesized in an environment comparable to natural conditions. Thus, the explanation for the formation of dolomite in these marine units remains in question. It is now thought that dolostones may be of various origins. Indeed, several different models have been suggested for dolomite formation, each based on diverse considerations, combined with empirical and/or experimental data.

      Except for models invoking formation of dolomite by direct precipitation, a process thought by most geologists to apply to only a small percentage of all dolostones, each model is based on the assumption that the dolomite of dolostones has been formed by conversion of CaCO₃ sediment or sedimentary rocks to dolostone. Thus, the models have been formulated to account for this conversion, which is known as dolomitization.

      The most widely discussed models for dolomitization, either partial or complete, involve four chief variables: time, location with respect to the sediment-seawater interface, composition and derivation of the solutions involved, and fluxing mechanisms. The time ranges from dolomitization that occurs penecontemporaneously with deposition to that which takes place subsequent to relatively deep burial of the precursor sediments. The location ranges from at or very near the sediment-seawater interface to well beneath some overlying sediments that were deposited at a later time. The solutions supply the magnesium needed and must have the appropriate pH and concentrations of other necessary ions; these solutions are generally considered to be seawater (either “normal” seawater or brines concentrated by evaporation), connate water, meteoric water, or some combination of these waters. (Connate refers to water that becomes enclosed within sediments upon their deposition; meteoric water is derived from the atmosphere as rain or snow, which often occurs in pore spaces within rocks.) Another important variable is the presence of dissolved sulfate (SO₄^{− 2}) ions, as this retards the dolomitization process. The fluxing mechanisms are generally attributed to density differences of the solutions involved and the permeability characteristics available for percolation through the precursor sediment. In addition, the presence of a geothermal heat source in a basin may enhance both fluid flux and the rate of dolomitization. There also are additional direct and indirect controls—e.g., climate, biochemical processes, and HDO:H₂O and/or D₂O:H₂O ratios in the water. (The symbol D represents deuterium, the hydrogen isotope with a nucleus containing one neutron in addition to the single proton of the ordinary hydrogen nucleus.) Bacteria may also play a role in the formation of dolomite. In any case, it has been shown that some dolostones have gained their current characteristics as a consequence of certain combinations of these conditions and processes.

      Criteria involving factors such as the identity of associated rocks and the coarseness of the grains of dolostones have been suggested for use in attributing one versus the other hypothesized models to certain occurrences of dolostone. None, however, has been accepted as an absolute criterion by many carbonate petrologists.

      The desire for an understanding of dolomitization of sedimentary strata has been based on economic as well as scientific interests. In many places, dolomitization has led to increases in permeability and porosity and thus increased the potential of such rock strata as good oil, gas, and groundwater reservoirs and, in some cases, even as hosts of certain kinds of ore deposits.

      The other fairly common dolomite occurrences include the following: Dolostones have been metamorphosed to both dolomite and calcite marbles; dedolomitization processes account for the latter. Some dolomite marbles are nearly pure dolomite. Dolomite carbonatites are of the same general origin as calcite carbonatites. The dolomite present in dolomite veins has also been ascribed diverse origins; some appears to have been deposited by percolating connate or meteoric groundwater, and some seems more likely to have been deposited by hydrothermal solutions charged with magmatic volatiles.

Uses

      Dolomite is used as a source of magnesium metal and of magnesia (MgO), which is a constituent of refractory bricks. Dolostone is often used instead of limestone as an aggregate for both cement and bitumen mixes and also as a flux in blast furnaces. The use of dolostone as a flux has increased, especially since environmental contamination has become a widely heeded consideration, because the resulting slag can be employed for such things as lightweight aggregate, whereas that formed when limestone is used cannot. Such is the case because dolostone-based slag does not slake (disintegrate in water), but limestone-based slag does.

Other common rock-forming minerals

       Common rock-forming mineralsThe table (Common rock-forming minerals) lists important rock-forming minerals even though they do not make up large percentages of any common rocks. Each of these minerals is a major constituent of some sizable rock masses, occurs widely as an accessory mineral in many common rocks, or assumes both roles. Consequently, they warrant brief description here.

magnetite and chromite

 Magnetite (Fe₃O₄—that is, Fe²⁺Fe³⁺/₂O₄) and chromite (Fe²⁺Cr₂O₄) are both members of the spinel group. The spinels, comprising some 21 species (including the well-known gemstone balas ruby), are cubic (isometric) and commonly occur as octahedrons (Figure 41—>). Magnetite and chromite are opaque and dark gray to iron-black; magnetite is strongly magnetic. Magnetite and chromite are the major constituents of the rocks called magnetitite and chromitite, respectively. In addition, each is a common accessory mineral in one or more igneous rocks. Magnetite also occurs widely in several metamorphic and sedimentary rocks; one or both of these minerals occur in several placer deposits. Magnetite has been recovered as iron ore; chromite is the only important commercial mineral of chromium.

halite, gypsum, and anhydrite

 Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO₄ · 2H₂O), and anhydrite (CaSO₄) are the major constituents of the sedimentary rocks rock salt, rock gypsum, and rock anhydrite, respectively. These rocks are usually referred to as evaporites. Halite, the mineral name for common salt, is cubic and is typically colourless or white but may be tinted various colours by impurities. It breaks into cubes because of its three perfect cleavages at right angles to each other and has a characteristic salty taste. Gypsum is monoclinic and commonly occurs as tabular crystals, either simple or twinned, and also forms coarse to fine granular masses. It is typically colourless or white but may be red, orange, brown, or black because of the presence of impurities, and it cleaves into plates that may be bent but are not flexible. Gypsum is so soft (Mohs hardness of 2) that it can be scratched easily with one's fingernail. Anhydrite (see photograph—>) is orthorhombic and resembles granular dolomite in many rocks, but it does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid. When altered, anhydrite usually takes on a thin coating of white gypsum. Halite has been recovered from rock salt deposits for diverse uses for at least seven millennia. The major use of gypsum is for the manufacture of plaster of paris.

epidote

      Epidote is the name given to both a group of minerals and a mineral species. Epidote, the species [Ca₂(Al, Fe)₃(SiO₄)₃(OH)], crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Its presence in rocks is generally recognized on the basis of its yellowish to bilious-green colour (). Macroscopically, it is usually distinguished from olivine, which it may closely resemble, on the basis of its association with quartz. Epidote commonly occurs in quartz-bearing metamorphic and igneous rocks, whereas olivine occurs only rarely in rocks that contain quartz. Epidote may be cut as a gem.

hematite

      Hematite (α-Fe₂O₃) is hexagonal. Although it is present as silvery-gray, highly lustrous platelike masses in some rocks, it is most widely encountered as the henna-red pigment of many diverse rocks—e.g., red sandstones and many other red beds. Some sedimentary rocks and their metamorphosed products contain such high percentages of hematite that they have been recovered as iron ore. Hematite may also be used as a polishing powder and as a paint pigment.

limonite

      Limonite is the catchall name widely applied to hydrous iron oxide minerals. Goethite [α-Fe³⁺O(OH)], which is hexagonal, is the most common of these minerals; indeed, in nature most FeO(OH) minerals ultimately become this α-phase. Goethite, much of which has the general colour of iron rust, occurs wherever chemical weathering affects rocks that contain one or more iron-bearing minerals. In some cases, only surficial stains have resulted; in others, masses large enough to constitute iron ore deposits have been formed. Goethite also is common in modern sediments; e.g., it is the typical iron mineral in marine ferromanganese nodules.

pyrite and pyrrhotite

      Pyrite (FeS₂) and pyrrhotite (Fe_{1 - x}S) are the most common sulfide minerals. Brassy yellow pyrite, often called “fool's gold,” occurs variously as an accessory mineral in many rocks, in veins, and even as a chief component of some fossils. Pyrrhotite, which typically has a bronzelike appearance and is slightly magnetic, is a common accessory mineral in mafic igneous rocks. Both of these minerals, which are associated with each other in some deposits, have yielded large quantities of sulfur recovered for uses such as the production of sulfuric acid.

R.V. Dietrich

Additional Reading

Terence P. Scoffin, An Introduction to Carbonate Sediments and Rocks (1987), is a well-illustrated, easy-to-read book about limestones and dolostones. A review article by Laurence A. Hardie, “Dolomitization: A Critical View of Some Current Views,” in Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 57(1):166–183 (1987), emphasizes the problems involved with accepting the most commonly embraced models of dolomitization and concludes that direct precipitation models (among other things) should receive more attention and study. Vijai Shukla and Paul A. Baker, Sedimentology and Geochemistry of Dolostones (1988), a collection of symposium papers, covers organogenic dolomites and the geochemistry of dolomite textures. John K. Warren, Evaporite Sedimentology: Importance in Hydrocarbon Accumulation (1989), includes a chapter on dolomites and dolomitization, a good recent summary of the pertinent data and hypotheses; the bibliography includes most of the noteworthy articles published in English. Bruce Purser, Maurice Tucker, and Donald Zenger, Dolomites: A Volume in Honor of Dolomieu (1994), provides a review of recent scientific progress and remaining scientific and economic problems concerning the mineral dolemite.R.V. Dietrich

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