blood group

Med.

any of various classes into which human blood can be divided according to immunological compatibility, based on the presence or absence of specific antigens on red blood cells. Also called blood type. Cf. ABO system, Rh factor.

[1915-20]

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Introduction

 classification of blood based on inherited differences (polymorphisms (polymorphism)) in antigens (antigen) on the surfaces of the red blood cells (erythrocytes (erythrocyte)). Inherited differences of white blood cells (leukocytes (leukocyte)), platelets (platelet) (thrombocytes), and plasma proteins also constitute blood groups, but they are not included in this discussion.

Historical background

      English physician William Harvey (Harvey, William) announced his observations on the circulation of the blood in 1616 and published his famous monograph titled Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (The Anatomical Exercises Concerning the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals) in 1628. His discovery, that blood circulates around the body in a closed system, was an essential prerequisite of the concept of transfusing (blood transfusion) blood (blood transfusion) from one animal to another of the same or different species. In England, experiments on the transfusion of blood were pioneered in dogs in 1665 by physician Richard Lower. In November 1667 Lower transfused the blood of a lamb into a man. Meanwhile, in France, Jean-Baptiste Denis, court physician to King Louis XIV (Louis XIV), had also been transfusing lambs' blood into human subjects and described what is probably the first recorded account of the signs and symptoms of a hemolytic transfusion reaction. Denis was arrested after a fatality, and the procedure of transfusing the blood of other animals into humans was prohibited, by an act of the Chamber of Deputies in 1668, unless sanctioned by the Faculty of Medicine of Paris. Ten years later, in 1678, the British Parliament also prohibited transfusions. Little advance was made in the next 150 years.

      In England in the 19th century, interest was reawakened by the activities of obstetrician James Blundell, whose humanitarian instincts had been aroused by the frequently fatal outcome of hemorrhage occurring after childbirth. He insisted that it was better to use human blood for transfusion in such cases.

      In 1875 German physiologist Leonard Landois showed that, if the red blood cells of an animal belonging to one species are mixed with serum taken from an animal of another species, the red cells usually clump and sometimes burst—i.e., hemolyze (hemolysis). He attributed the appearance of black urine after transfusion of heterologous blood (blood from a different species) to the hemolysis of the incompatible red cells. Thus, the dangers of transfusing blood of another species to humans were established scientifically.

      The human ABO blood groups (ABO blood group system) were discovered by Austrian-born American biologist Karl Landsteiner (Landsteiner, Karl) in 1901. Landsteiner found that there are substances in the blood, antigens and antibodies (antibody), that induce clumping of red cells when red cells of one type are added to those of a second type. He recognized three groups—A, B, and O—based on their reactions to each other. A fourth group, AB, was identified a year later by another research team. Red cells of the A group clump with donor blood of the B group; those of the B group clump with blood of the A group; those of the AB group clump with those of the A or the B group because AB cells contain both A and B antigens; and those of the O group do not generally clump with any group, because they do not contain either A or B antigens. The application of knowledge of the ABO system in blood transfusion practice is of enormous importance, since mistakes can have fatal consequences.

      The discovery of the Rh system (Rh blood group system) by Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener in 1940 was made because they tested human red cells with antisera developed in rabbits and guinea pigs by immunization of the animals with the red cells of the rhesus monkey Macaca mulatta.

       Major human blood group systemsOther blood groups were identified later, such as Kell (Kell blood group system), Diego (Diego blood group system), Lutheran, Duffy, and Kidd (Kidd blood group system). The remaining blood group systems were first described after antibodies were identified in patients. Frequently, such discoveries resulted from the search for the explanation of an unexpected unfavourable reaction in a recipient after a transfusion with formerly compatible blood. In such cases the antibodies in the recipient were produced against previously unidentified antigens in the donor's blood. In the case of the Rh system, for example, the presence of antibodies in the maternal serum directed against antigens present on the child's red cells can have serious consequences because of antigen-antibody reactions that produce erythroblastosis fetalis, or hemolytic disease of the newborn. Some of the other blood group systems—for example, the Kell and Kidd systems—were discovered because an infant was found to have erythroblastosis fetalis even though mother and child were compatible as far as the Rh system was concerned. In the table (Major human blood group systems) the well-established human blood group systems are listed in the order of discovery.

The importance of antigens (antigen) and antibodies

      The red cells of an individual contain antigens (antigen) on their surfaces that correspond to their blood group and antibodies (antibody) in the serum that identify and combine with the antigen sites on the surfaces of red cells of another type. The reaction between red cells and corresponding antibodies usually results in clumping— agglutination—of the red cells; therefore, antigens on the surfaces of these red cells are often referred to as agglutinogens.

      Antibodies are part of the circulating plasma proteins known as immunoglobulins, which are classified by molecular size and weight and by several other biochemical properties. Most blood group antibodies are found either on immunoglobulin G (IgG) or immunoglobulin M (IgM) molecules, but occasionally the immunoglobulin A (IgA) class may exhibit blood group specificity. Naturally occurring antibodies are the result of immunization by substances in nature that have structures similar to human blood groups. These antibodies are present in an individual despite the fact that there has been no previous exposure to the corresponding red cell antigens—for example, anti-A in the plasma of people of blood group B and anti-B in the plasma of people of blood group A. Immune antibodies are evoked by exposure to the corresponding red cell antigen. immunization (i.e., the production of antibodies in response to antigen) against blood group antigens in humans can occur as a result of pregnancy, blood transfusion, or deliberate immunization. The combination of pregnancy and transfusion is a particularly potent stimulus. Individual blood group antigens vary in their antigenic potential; for example, some of the antigens belonging to the Rh and ABO systems are strongly immunogenic (i.e., capable of inducing antibody formation), whereas the antigens of the Kidd and Duffy blood group systems are much weaker immunogens.

      The blood group antigens are not restricted solely to red cells or even to hematopoietic tissues. The antigens of the ABO system are widely distributed throughout the tissues and have been unequivocally identified on platelets and white cells (both lymphocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes) and in skin, the epithelial (lining) cells of the gastrointestinal tract, the kidney, the urinary tract, and the lining of the blood vessels. Evidence for the presence of the antigens of other blood group systems on cells other than red cells is less well substantiated. Among the red cell antigens, only those of the ABO system are regarded as tissue antigens and therefore need to be considered in organ transplantation.

Chemistry of the blood group substances

      The exact chemical structure of some blood groups has been identified, as have the gene products (i.e., those molecules synthesized as a result of an inherited genetic code on a gene of a chromosome) that assist in synthesizing the antigens on the red cell surface that determine the blood type. Blood group antigens (antigen) are present on glycolipid and glycoprotein molecules of the red cell membrane. The carbohydrate chains of the membrane glycolipids are oriented toward the external surface of the red cell membrane and carry antigens of the ABO (ABO blood group system), Hh, Ii, and P systems. Glycoproteins, which traverse the red cell membrane, have a polypeptide backbone to which carbohydrates are attached. An abundant glycoprotein, band 3, contains ABO, Hh, and Ii antigens. Another integral membrane glycoprotein, glycophorin A, contains large numbers of sialic acid molecules and MN blood group structures; another, glycophorin B, contains Ss and U antigens.

      The genes responsible for inheritance of ABH and Lewis antigens are glycosyltransferases (a group of enzymes that catalyze the addition of specific sugar residues to the core precursor substance). For example, the H gene codes for the production of a specific glycosyltransferase that adds l-fucose to a core precursor substance, resulting in the H antigen; the Le gene codes for the production of a specific glycosyltransferase that adds l-fucose to the same core precursor substance, but in a different place, forming the Lewis antigen; the A gene adds N-acetyl-d-galactosamine (H must be present), forming the A antigen; and the B gene adds d-galactose (H must be present), forming the B antigen. The P system is analogous to the ABH and Lewis blood groups in the sense that the P antigens are built by the addition of sugars to precursor globoside and paragloboside glycolipids, and the genes responsible for these antigens must produce glycosyltransferase enzymes.

      The genes that code for MNSs glycoproteins change two amino acids in the sequence of the glycoprotein to account for different antigen specificities. Additional analysis of red cell membrane glycoproteins has shown that in some cases the absence of blood group antigens is associated with an absence of minor membrane glycoproteins that are present normally in antigen-positive persons.

Methods of blood (blood analysis) grouping

Identification of blood groups

      The basic technique in identification of the antigens (antigen) and antibodies (antibody) of blood groups is the agglutination test. agglutination of red cells results from antibody cross-linkages established when different specific combining sites of one antibody react with antigen on two different red cells. By mixing red cells (antigen) and serum (antibody), either the type of antigen or the type of antibody can be determined depending on whether a cell of known antigen composition or a serum with known antibody specificity is used.

      In its simplest form, a volume of serum containing antibody is added to a thin suspension (2–5 percent) of red cells suspended in physiological saline solution in a small tube with a narrow diameter. After incubation at the appropriate temperature, the red cells will have settled to the bottom of the tube. These sedimented red cells are examined macroscopically (with the naked eye) for agglutination, or they may be spread on a slide and viewed through a low-power microscope.

      An antibody that agglutinates red cells when they are suspended in saline solution is called a complete antibody. With powerful complete antibodies, such as anti-A and anti-B, agglutination reactions visible to the naked eye take place when a drop of antibody is placed on a slide together with a drop containing red cells in suspension. After stirring, the slide is rocked, and agglutination is visible in a few minutes. It is always necessary in blood grouping to include a positive and a negative control for each test.

      An antibody that does not clump red cells when they are suspended in saline solution is called incomplete. Such antibodies block the antigenic sites of the red cells so that subsequent addition of complete antibody of the same antigenic specificity does not result in agglutination. Incomplete antibodies will agglutinate red cells carrying the appropriate antigen, however, when the cells are suspended in media containing protein. serum albumin from the blood of cattle is a substance that is frequently used for this purpose. Red cells may also be rendered specifically agglutinable by incomplete antibodies after treatment with such protease enzymes as trypsin, papain, ficin, or bromelain.

      After such infections as pneumonia, red cells may become agglutinable by almost all normal sera because of exposure of a hidden antigenic site (T) as a result of the action of bacterial enzymes. When the patient recovers, the blood also returns to normal with respect to agglutination. It is unusual for the red cells to reflect antigenicity other than that determined by the individual's genetic makeup. The presence of an acquired B antigen on the red cells has been described occasionally in diseases of the colon, thus allowing the red cell to express an antigenicity other than that genetically determined. Other diseases may alter immunoglobulins; for example, some may induce the production of antibodies directed against the person's own blood groups (autoimmune hemolytic anemia) and thus may interfere with blood grouping. In other diseases a defect in antibody synthesis may cause the absence of anti-A and anti-B antibody.

Coombs test

      When an incomplete antibody reacts with the red cells in saline solution, the antigenic sites become coated with antibody globulin ( gamma globulin), and no visible agglutination reaction takes place. The presence of gamma globulin on cells can be detected by the Coombs test, named for its inventor, English immunologist Robert Coombs. Coombs serum (also called antihuman globulin) is made by immunizing rabbits with human gamma globulin. The rabbits respond by making antihuman globulin (i.e., antibodies against human gamma globulin and complement) that is then purified before use. The antihuman globulin usually contains antibodies against IgG and complement. Coombs serum is added to the washed cells; the tube is centrifuged; and, if the cells are coated by gamma globulin or complement, agglutinates will form. Newer antiglobulin reagents (made by immunizing with purified protein) can detect either globulin or complement. Depending on how it is performed, the Coombs test can detect incomplete antibody in the serum or antibody bound to the red cell membrane. In certain diseases, anemia may be caused by the coating of red cells with gamma globulin. This can happen when a mother has made antibodies against the red cells of her newborn child or if a person makes an autoantibody against his own red cells.

adsorption, elution, and titration

      If a serum contains a mixture of antibodies, it is possible to prepare pure samples of each by a technique called adsorption. In this technique an unwanted antibody is removed by mixing it with red cells carrying the appropriate antigen. The antigen interacts with the antibody and binds it to the cell surface. These red cells are washed thoroughly and spun down tightly by centrifugation, all the fluid above the cells is removed, and the cells are then said to be packed. The cells are packed to avoid dilution of the antibody being prepared. Adsorption, then, is a method of separating mixtures of antibodies by removing some and leaving others. It is used to identify antibody mixtures and to purify reagents. The purification of the Coombs serum (see above) is done in the same way.

      If red cells have adsorbed gamma globulin onto their surfaces, the antibody can sometimes be recovered by a process known as elution. One simple way of eluting (dissociating) antibody from washed red cells is to heat them at 56 °C (133 °F) in a small volume of saline solution. Other methods include use of acid or ether. This technique is sometimes useful in the identification of antibodies.

       titration is used to determine the strength of an antibody. Doubling dilutions of the antibody are made in a suitable medium in a series of tubes. Cells carrying the appropriate antigen are added, and the agglutination reactions are read and scored for the degree of positivity. The actual concentration of the antibody is given by the dilution at which some degree of agglutination, however weak, can still be seen. This would not be a safe dilution to use for blood-grouping purposes. If an antiserum can be diluted, the dilution chosen must be such that strong positive reactions occur with selected positive control cells. Titration is helpful when preparing reagents and comparing antibody concentrations at different time intervals.

Inhibition tests

      Inhibition tests are used to detect the presence of antigen with blood group specificity in solutions; inhibition of a known antibody-antigen reaction by a fluid indicates a particular blood group specificity. If an active substance is added to antibody, neutralization of the antibody's activity prevents agglutination when red cells carrying the appropriate antigen are subsequently added to the mixture. A, B, Lewis, Chido, Rogers, and P antigens are readily available and can be used to facilitate antibody identification. This technique was used to elucidate the biochemistry of ABH, Ii, and Lewis systems, and it is important in forensic medicine as a means of identifying antigens in blood stains.

hemolysis

      Laboratory tests in which hemolysis (destruction) of the red cells is the end point are not used frequently in blood grouping. For hemolysis to take place, a particular component of fresh serum called complement must be present. Complement must be added to the mixture of antibody and red cells. It may sometimes be desirable to look for hemolysins that destroy group A red cells in mothers whose group A children are incompatible or in individuals, not belonging to groups A or AB, who have been immunized with tetanus toxoid that contains substances with group A specificity.

      Hemolytic reactions may occur in patients who have been given transfusions (blood transfusion) of blood that either is incompatible or has already hemolyzed. The sera of such patients require special investigations to detect the presence of hemoglobin that has escaped from red cells destroyed within the body and for the breakdown products of other red cell constituents.

Sources of antibodies and antigens

      Normal donors are used as the source of supply of naturally occurring antibodies, such as those of the ABO, P, and Lewis systems. These antibodies work best at temperatures below that of the body (37 °C, or 98.6 °F); in the case of what are known as cold agglutinins, such as anti-P₁, the antibody is most active at 4 °C (39 °F). Most antibodies used in blood grouping must be searched for in immunized donors.

      Antibodies for MN typing are usually raised in rabbits—similarly for the Coombs serum. Antibodies prepared in this way have to be absorbed free of unwanted components and carefully standardized before use. Additional substances with specific blood group activity have been found in certain plants. Plant agglutinins are called lectins. Some useful reagents extracted from seeds are anti-H from Ulex europaeus (common gorse); anti-A₁, from another member of the pulse family Fabaceae (Leguminosae), Dolichos biflorus; and anti-N from the South American plant Vicia graminea. Agglutinins have also been found in animals—for example, the fluid pressed from the land snail Octala lactea. Additional plant lectins and agglutinins from animal fluids have been isolated.

      Monoclonal antibodies (monoclonal antibody) (structurally identical antibodies produced by hybridomas) to blood groups are replacing some of the human blood grouping reagents. Mouse hybridomas (hybrid cells of a myeloma tumour cell and lymphocyte merging) produce anti-A and anti-B monoclonal antibodies. The antibodies are made by immunizing with either red cells or synthetic carbohydrates. In addition to their use in blood grouping, these monoclonal antibodies can be of use in defining the hereditary background (heterogenicity) and structure of the red cell antigen.

Uses of blood grouping

Transfusion

       ABO and Rh groups in transfusionThe blood donated by healthy persons is tested to ensure that the level of hemoglobin is satisfactory and that there is no risk of transmitting certain diseases, such as AIDS or hepatitis. It is then fractionated (split) into its component parts, particularly red cells, plasma, and platelets. Correct matching for the ABO system (ABO blood group system) is vital. Compatible donors on the basis of their possessing A, B, or O blood are shown in the table (ABO and Rh groups in transfusion).

      As explained above, the most important blood group systems for transfusion of red cells are ABO and Rh (Rh blood group system). Persons who have either of the red cell antigens (antigen) (A and B) have antibody present in their serum of the type that will oppose an antigen of its opposite nature; for example, group A blood contains A antigens on red cell surfaces and anti-B antibodies in the surrounding serum. On the other hand, O group individuals lack both the A and the B antigen and thus have both anti-A and anti-B in their serum. If these antibodies combine with the appropriate antigen, the result is hemolytic transfusion reaction and possibly death. Red cell transfusions must therefore be ABO compatible. The blood groups A and B have various subgroups (e.g., A₁, A₂, A₃, and B₁, B₂, and B₃). The only common subgroups that are likely to affect red cell transfusions are the subgroups of A.

      Potential donors are also tested for some of the antigens of the Rh system (Rh blood group system), since it is essential to know whether they are Rh-positive or Rh-negative. Rh-negative indicates the absence of the D antigen. Rh-negative persons transfused with Rh-positive blood will make anti-D antibodies from 50 to 75 percent of the time. Antibody made in response to a foreign red cell antigen is usually not harmful but does require subsequent transfusions to be antigen-negative. Rh-positive blood should never be given to Rh-negative females before or during the childbearing age unless Rh negative blood is not available and the transfusion is lifesaving. If such a woman subsequently became pregnant (pregnancy) with an Rh-positive fetus, she might form anti-Rh antibody, even though the pregnancy was the first, and the child might develop erythroblastosis fetalis (hemolytic disease of the newborn).

      Care must be taken not to give a transfusion unless the cells of the donor have been tested against the recipient's serum. If this compatibility test indicates the presence of antibodies in the recipient's serum for the antigens carried by the donor's cells, the blood is not suitable for transfusion because an unfavourable reaction might occur. The test for compatibility is called the direct match test. It involves testing the recipient's serum with the donor's cells and by the indirect Coombs test. These are adequate screening tests for most naturally occurring and immune antibodies.

      If, in spite of all the compatibility tests, a reaction does occur after the transfusion is given (the unfavourable reaction often manifests itself in the form of a fever), an even more careful search must be made for any red cell antibody that might be the cause. A reaction after transfusion is not necessarily due to red cell antigen-antibody reactions. It could be caused by the presence of antibodies to the donor's platelets or white cells. Transfusion reactions are a particular hazard for persons requiring multiple transfusions (blood transfusion).

Organ transplants (transplant)

      The ABO antigens are widely distributed throughout the tissues of the body. Therefore, when organs such as kidneys are transplanted, most surgeons prefer to use organs that are matched to the recipient's with respect to the ABO antigen system, although the occasional survival of a grafted ABO-incompatible kidney has occurred. The remaining red cell antigen systems are not relevant in organ transplantation.

Paternity testing

       Exclusions of paternity on the ABO systemAlthough blood group studies cannot be used to prove paternity, they can provide unequivocal evidence that a male is not the father of a particular child. Since the red cell antigens are inherited (genetics, human) as dominant traits, a child cannot have a blood group antigen that is not present in one or both parents. For example, if the child in question belongs to group A and both the mother and the putative father are group O, the man is excluded from paternity. The table (Exclusions of paternity on the ABO system) shows the phenotypes (observed characters) of the offspring that can and cannot be produced in the matings on the ABO system, considering only the three alleles (allele) (alternative genes) A, B, and O. Similar inheritance patterns are seen in all blood group systems. Furthermore, if one parent is genetically homozygous for a particular antigen—that is, has inherited the gene for it from both the grandfather and grandmother of the child—then that antigen must appear in the blood of the child. For example, on the MN system, a father whose phenotype is M and whose genotype is MM (in other words, a man who is of blood type M and has inherited the characteristic from both parents) will transmit an M allele to all his progeny.

      In medicolegal work it is important that the blood samples are properly identified. By using multiple red cell antigen systems and adding additional studies on other blood types (HLA [human leukocyte antigen], red cell enzymes, and plasma proteins), it is possible to state with a high degree of statistical certainty that a particular male is the father.

Blood groups and disease

      In some cases an increased incidence of a particular antigen seems to be associated with a certain disease. stomach cancer is more common in people of group A than in those of groups O and B. Duodenal ulceration is more common in nonsecretors of ABH substances than in secretors. For practical purposes, however, these statistical correlations are unimportant. There are other examples that illustrate the importance of blood groups to the normal functions of red cells.

      In persons who lack all Rh antigens, red cells of altered shape (stomatocytes) and a mild compensated hemolytic anemia are present. The McLeod phenotype (weak Kell (Kell blood group system) antigens and no K_x antigen) is associated with acanthocytosis (a condition in which red cells have thorny projections) and a compensated hemolytic anemia. There is evidence that Duffy-negative human red cells are resistant to infection by Plasmodium knowlesi, a simian malaria parasite. Other studies indicate that P. falciparum receptors may reside on glycophorin A and may be related to the Wr^b antigen.

      Blood group incompatibility between mother and child can cause erythroblastosis fetalis (hemolytic disease of the newborn). In this disease IgG blood group antibody molecules cross the placenta, enter the fetal circulation, react with the fetal red cells, and destroy them. Only certain blood group systems cause erythroblastosis fetalis, and the severity of the disease in the fetus varies greatly. ABO incompatibility usually leads to mild disease. Rh, or D antigen, incompatibility is now largely preventable by treating Rh-negative mothers with Rh immunoglobulin, which prevents immunization (forming antibodies) to the D antigen. Many other Rh antigens, as well as other red cell group antigens, cause erythroblastosis fetalis. The baby may be anemic at birth, which can be treated by transfusion (blood transfusion) with antigen-negative red cells. Even total exchange transfusion may be necessary. In some cases, transfusions may be given while the fetus is still within the uterus (intrauterine transfusion). Hyperbilirubinemia (an increased amount of bilirubin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin, in the blood) may lead to neurological deficits. Exchange transfusion eliminates most of the hemolysis by providing red cells, which do not react with the antibody. It also decreases the amount of antibody and allows the child to recover from the disease. Once the antibody disappears, the child's own red cells survive normally.

Genetic and evolutionary significance of blood groups

Blood groups and genetic linkage

      Red cell groups act as markers (inherited characteristics) for genes (gene) present on chromosomes (chromosome), which are responsible for their expression. The site of a particular genetic system on a chromosome is called a locus. Each locus may be the site of several alleles (alternative genes). In an ordinary cell of the human body, there are 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs, 22 pairs of which are autosomes (chromosomes other than sex chromosomes (sex chromosome)), with the remaining pair being the sex chromosomes, designated XX in females and XY in males. The loci of the blood group systems are on the autosomes, except for Xg, which is unique among the blood groups in being located on the X chromosome. Genes carried by the X chromosome are said to be sex-linked. Since the blood groups are inherited in a regular fashion, they can be used as genetic markers in family studies to investigate whether any two particular loci are sited on the same chromosome—i.e., are linked. The genes sited at loci on the same chromosome travel together from parent to child, and, if the loci are close together, the genes will rarely be separated.

       Chromosome location, gene linkage, and disease associated with genes for blood group systemsLoci that are farther apart can be separated by recombination. This happens when material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes (pair of chromosomes) by crossing over during the process of cell division ( mitosis). The reproductive cells contain half the number of chromosomes of the rest of the body; ova (ovum) carry an X chromosome and spermatozoa (sperm) an X or a Y. The characteristic number of 46 chromosomes is restored at fertilization. In a classical pedigree linkage study, all the members of a family are examined for a test character and for evidence of the nonindependent segregation of pairs of characters. The results must be assessed statistically to determine linkage. Individual chromosomes are identified by the banding patterns revealed by different staining techniques. Segments of chromosomes or chromosomes that are aberrant in number and morphology may be precisely identified. Other methods for localizing markers on chromosomes include somatic cell hybridization (cell culture with alignment of single strands of RNA and DNA) and use of DNA probes (strands of radiolabeled DNA). These methods are useful in classical linkage studies to locate blood group loci. The loci for many red cell groups have been found on chromosomes and in many cases have been further localized on a particular chromosome. Their chromosome assignments and linkage to genes as well as associated abnormalities are outlined in the table (Chromosome location, gene linkage, and disease associated with genes for blood group systems).

      In some of the blood group systems, the amount of antigen produced depends on the genetic constitution. The ABO blood group (ABO blood group system) gene codes for a specific carbohydrate transferase enzyme that catalyzes the addition of specific sugars onto a precursor substance. As a new sugar is added, a new antigen is produced. Antigens in the MNSs blood system are the products of genes that control terminal amino acid sequence. The amount of antigen present may depend on the amount of gene product inherited or on the activity of the gene product (i.e., transferase). The red cells of a person whose genotype is MM show more M antigen than do MN red cells. In the case of ABO, the same mechanism may also play a role in antigen expression, but specific activity of the inherited transferase may be more important.

      The amount of antigen produced can also be influenced by the position of the genes. Such effects within a genetic complex can be due to determinants on the same chromosome—they are then said to be cis—or to determinants on the opposite chromosome of a chromosome pair—trans.

      In the Rh combination cdE/cde, more E antigen is produced than in the combination cDE/cde. This may be due to the suppressor effect of D on E. An example of suppression in the trans situation is that more C antigen is detectable on the red cells from CDe/cde donors than on those of CDe/cDE people. The inheritance of the Rh system probably depends on the existence of operator genes, which turn the activity of closely linked structural genes on or off. The operator genes are themselves controlled by regulator genes. The operator genes are responsible for the quantity of Rh antigens, while the structural genes are responsible for their qualitative characteristics.

      The detection of recombination (exchange of material between chromosomes) or mutation in human families is complicated by questions of paternity. In spite of the large number of families that have been studied, it is an extremely rare occurrence. The paucity of examples may indicate that the recombinant and mutation rate for blood group genes is lower than that estimated for other human genes.

Blood groups and population groups

      The blood groups are found in all human populations but vary in frequency. An analysis of populations yields striking differences in the frequency of some blood group genes. The frequency of the A gene is the highest among Australian Aborigines, the Blackfoot Indians of Montana in the United States, and the Sami people of northern Scandinavia. The O gene is common throughout the world, particularly among peoples of South and Central America. The maximum frequency of the B gene occurs in Central Asia and northern India. On the Rh system most northern and central European populations differ from each other only slightly and are characterized by a cde (r) frequency of about 40 percent. Africans show a preponderance of the complex cDe, and the frequency of cde is about 20 percent. In eastern Asia cde is almost wholly absent, and, since everyone has the D antigen, erythroblastosis fetalis (due to the presence of maternal anti-D) is unknown in these populations.

      The blood group frequencies in small inbred populations reflect the influences of genetic drift. In a small community an allele can be lost from the genetic pool if persons carrying it happen to be infertile, while it can increase in frequency if advantage exists. It has been suggested, for example, that B alleles were lost by chance from Native Americans and Australian Aborigines when these communities were small. There are pronounced discrepancies in blood group frequencies between the people of eastern Asia and the aboriginal peoples of the Americas. Other blood group frequencies in different populations show that ancestors might share some common attribute indicating a close resemblance between populations.

      Nonhuman primates carry blood group antigens that can be detected with reagents used for typing human beings. The closer their evolutionary relationship to humans, the greater their similarity with respect to antigens. The red cells of the apes (ape), with the exception of the gorilla, have ABO antigens that are indistinguishable from those of human cells. Chimpanzees (chimpanzee) and orangutans (orangutan) are most frequently group A, but groups O, B, and AB are represented. Gibbons (gibbon) can be of any group except O, and gorillas have a B-like antigen that is not identical in activity with the human one. In both Old and New World monkeys, the red cells do not react with anti-A or with anti-B, but, when the secretions are examined, A and B substances and agglutinins are present in the serum. As far as the Rh system is concerned, chimpanzees carry two Rh antigens—D and c (hr′)—but not the others, whereas gibbons have only c (hr′). The red cells of monkeys do not give clear-cut reactions with human anti-Rh sera.

Sylvia Dorothy Lawler Eugene M. Berkman

Additional Reading

Books providing coverage of blood groups include Kathleen E. Boorman, Barbara E. Dodd, and P.J. Lincoln, Blood Group Serology: Theory, Techniques, Practical Applications, 5th ed. (1977); P.L. Mollison, Blood Transfusion in Clinical Medicine, 7th ed. (1983); A.E. Mourant, Blood Relations: Blood Groups and Anthropology (1983); R.R. Race and Ruth Sanger, Blood Groups in Man, 6th ed. (1975); Margaret E. Wallace and Frances L. Gibbs (eds.), Blood Group Systems, ABH and Lewis (1986); Technical Manual of the American Association of Blood Banks, 9th ed. (1985); Peter D. Issitt and David J. Anstee, Applied Blood Group Serology, 4th ed. (1998); Charles Salmon, Jean Pierre Cartron, and Philippe Rouger, The Human Blood Groups (1984); and Lawrence D. Petz and Scott N. Swisher, Clinical Practice of Blood Transfusion, 3rd ed. (1996).Sylvia Dorothy Lawler Eugene M. Berkman

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