Atlas Mountains

a mountain range in NW Africa, extending through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Highest peak, Mt. Tizi, 14,764 ft. (4500 m).

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Mountain system, northwestern Africa.

It extends some 1,200 mi (2,000 km) from the Moroccan port of Agadir in the southwest to the Tunisian capital of Tunis in the northeast. It comprises several ranges, rising to various elevations, including the High Atlas in Morocco; the Tell, or Maritime, Atlas, which runs along the coast from Morocco to Tunisia; and the Saharan Atlas in Algeria, located farther inland and running adjacent to the Sahara. Among these ranges are situated numerous plateaus and plains that support diverse ecologies. The system's highest peak is Morocco's Mount Toubkal, elevation 13,665 ft (4,165 m).

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▪ mountains, Africa

Introduction

 series of mountain ranges in northwestern Africa, running generally southwest to northeast to form the geologic backbone of the countries of the Maghrib (the western region of the Arab world)—Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. They extend for more than 1,200 miles (2,000 kilometres), from the Moroccan port of Agadir in the southwest, to the Tunisian capital of Tunis in the northeast. Their thick rim rises to form a high sill separating the Mediterranean basin to the north from the Sahara to the south, thus constituting a barrier that hinders, without completely preventing, communication between the two regions. Across the mountains filter both air masses and human migrations. It is, however, only in the east–west direction that the Atlas Mountains facilitate movement. These are the conditions that create at the same time both the individuality and the homogeneity of the Atlas countries. Although the Saharan region is more likely to be described as the archetypal North African habitat, it is the well-watered mountains north of this vast desert that provide the foundation for the livelihood of most of the peoples of North Africa and a striking green or white background for many North African towns.

Physical features

Physiography

      The Atlas mountain system takes the shape of an extended oblong, enclosing within its ranges a vast complex of plains and plateaus.

      The northern section is formed by the Tell Atlas, which receives enough rainfall to bear fine forests. From west to east several massifs (mountainous masses) occur. The first of these is Er- Rif, which forms a half-moon-shaped arc in Morocco between Ceuta and Melilla; its crest line exceeds 5,000 feet (1,500 metres) above sea level at several points, reaching 8,058 feet at Mount Tidirhine. East of the gap formed by the Moulouya River the Algerian ranges begin, among which the rugged bastion of the Ouarsenis Massif (which reaches a height of 6,512 feet), the Great Kabylie, which reaches 7,572 feet at the peak of Lalla Khedidja, and the mountains of Kroumirie in Tunisia are all prominent.

      The southern section, which is subject to desert influences, is appropriately called the Saharan Atlas. It includes in the centre a palisade formed by shorter ranges, such as the Ksour and Ouled-Naïl mountains, grouped into massifs between two mighty ranges—the Moroccan High Atlas to the west and the Aurès Mountains to the east. The High Atlas culminates in Mount Toubkal (Toubkal, Mount) at 13,665 feet (4,165 metres), the highest point in the Atlas Mountains, which is surrounded by high snowcapped peaks; the Aurès Mountains are formed of long parallel folds, which reach a height of 7,638 feet at Mount Chelia.

      The Tell Atlas and the Saharan Atlas merge in the west into the long folds of the Middle Atlas and in the east join together in the Tébessa and Medjerda mountains.

Geology

      If the relief of the Atlas region is relatively simple, its geology is complex. In essence, the two Atlases comprise two different structural regions.

      The Tell Atlas originally arose out of a basin filled with sediment, which was dominated to the north by a marginal rim, of which the massifs of Tizi Ouzou, Collo, and Edough are the remnants. Its elevation took place during a lengthy mountain-building process that was marked by upheavals in the Tertiary Period (which began 66.4 million years ago and ended 1.6 million years ago); over the cluster of folds that were uplifted from the rift valley were spread sheets of flysch (deposits of sandstones and clays), which were carried down from the north over the top of the marginal rim. Thus the Tell Atlas represents an example of a young folded mountain range still in the process of formation, as is shown by the earth tremors to which it is subject.

      To the south the Saharan Atlas belongs to another structural grouping, that of the vast plateaus of the African continent, which form part of the ancient base rock largely covered by sediments deposited by shallow seas and by alluvial deposits. The Saharan Atlas is the result either of the mighty folding of the substructure that raised up fragments of the base rock—such as the horst (uplifted block of the Earth's crust), which constitutes the Moroccan High Atlas—or else of the crumpling into folds of the Earth's crust during the Jurassic Period (208 to 144 million years ago) and the Cretaceous Period (144 to 66.4 million years ago).

Drainage

      The seasonal character of the rains, which fall in torrents, determines the characteristics of drainage in the Atlas: the runoff feeds streams that are of great erosive capacity and that have cut their way down through the thickness of accumulated layers of sediment to form deep narrow gorges difficult to cross. The pre-Roman fortress of Cirta (now called Constantine) in Algeria stands on a rock sculptured out by one such stream, the winding Rhumel River.

      The great Maghribian wadis (French: oueds; channels of watercourses that are dry except during periods of rain) issue from the Atlas ranges. Among the more perennial rivers are the Moulouya (Moulouya River), which rises from the Middle Atlas, and the Chelif (Chelif River), which rises from the Amour Mountains. Destructive of the soils of their headstreams, they deposit their loads of silt at the foot of the mountain ranges or else leave a long line of conical deposits locally known as dirs (“hills”).

Soils

      Good soil is sparse at higher altitudes in the Atlas region. Most often nothing is to be found but bare rock, debris, and fallen materials incessantly renewed by landslides. Two materials predominate—limestone, which forms ledges that are half-buried in rough debris, and marls (chalky clays) cut by erosion into a maze of ravines and crumbling gullies. The rarer sandstones favour forest growth. The best soils are the alluvia found on the terraced slopes and on the valley bottoms.

Climate

      The Atlas Mountains are the meeting place of two different kinds of air masses—the humid and cold polar air masses that come from the north and the hot and dry tropical air masses that move up from the south. To the influences of altitude and latitude must be added that of aspect or exposure.

      Rain is more plentiful in the Tell Atlas than in the Saharan Atlas, and more so to the northeast than to the southwest: the highest rainfall is recorded east of the Tell Atlas. ʿAyn ad-Darāhim in the Kroumirie mountains receives 60 inches (1,524 millimetres) a year; nowhere in the Anti-Atlas Mountains, south of the High Atlas, is the total more than 17 inches a year. In a single massif the slopes with a northern exposure receive more rainfall than those with a southern exposure.

      With increased altitude the temperature drops rapidly; despite the proximity of the sea, the coastal massifs are cold regions. At 6,575 feet the summits of Mount Babor in the Little Kabylie region are covered with snow for four or five months, while the Moroccan High Atlas retains its snows until the height of summer. Winter in the Atlas is hard, imposing severe conditions upon the inhabitants.

Plant and animal life

      Erosion of the soils in the Atlas region is aggravated by the sparseness of the vegetation covering the landscape; only about 39,000 square miles (101,000 square kilometres) of land are forested. On Er-Rif and the Kabylie and Kroumirie ranges, which experience some rainfall, moist forests of cork oaks cover an undergrowth of arbutus (cane apple) and heather shrub, and carpets of rockroses and lavender are found. When the total annual rainfall is less than about 30 inches and limestone is present, green oak and arborvitae (a species of pine tree) cover the soil, forming light, dry forests with a thin and bushy undergrowth. Stands of cedar predominate at higher altitudes. On the dry summits of the Saharan Atlas the vegetation is reduced to scattered stands of green oak and juniper trees.

      The clearance of land for agriculture has reduced the forest cover in the Atlas ranges; animal life in the mountains is also in retreat. There remain only a few jackals, some tribes of monkeys (Barbary apes) at higher elevations, and occasional herds of wild boars in the oak woods.

The people

      The mountains, with their inhospitable environment, have provided a refuge for the original inhabitants, who have fled successive invasions. Here the Berber people have survived, preserving their own languages, traditions, and beliefs, while at the same time accepting Islām to some extent. Village communities still live according to a code of customary law, known as kanun, which deals with all questions of property and persons. The family unit traces its descent from a single ancestor, preserving its cohesion by the sense of solidarity that unites its members; an injury to the honour of one affects the group as a whole and demands vengeance.

      The concern of Berber society to preserve its individuality is evident in the choice of habitat. Villages, which are fortified, are generally perched high up on mountain crests. Small in size, such villages are composed of the dwellings, a mosque, a threshing floor, and a place for the assembly of the elders (jamāʿah, or djemaa), which governs the affairs of each community. Families live, each unit apart, in separate rooms that form a square around a closed interior courtyard.

      Despite the fundamental homogeneity of Berber society, there is a considerable diversity in different mountain localities. The Shluh of the High Atlas in Morocco inhabit the river valleys that cut down deeply into the massif. Their villages, with populations of several hundred inhabitants in each, are often located at an altitude of more than 6,500 feet. They consist of terraced houses, crowded one against the other, that are often dominated by a communal fortified threshing floor, or else are grouped around the threshing floor-plus-dwelling of the most powerful family. The mountain slopes in the vicinity are divided up for pasturage and cultivation. In some fields dry (i.e., nonirrigated) farming is practiced for growing cereals. Land that is irrigated by diverting water from wadis yields two crops a year—cereals in winter and vegetables in summer. The Shluh use manure from their cattle as fertilizer. Oxen and goats penned together on the ground floor of dwellings graze on stubble and on fallow lands around the villages. Sheepherders follow a pattern of transhumance (seasonal migration), grazing their sheep on low-lying land in winter and on the uplands in summer.

      During the period of the French protectorate in Morocco (1912–56), profound changes occurred, transforming the way of life of the Middle Atlas populations. The dominant pattern of transhumance gave way to the practice of sedentary agriculture. The winter descent to the plains (azarhar) pasture has become practically a thing of the past, since the land is now under cultivation. The ascent to high pastures in summer, however, still continues. Stock raising in one location is increasingly practiced. Commercial forest products, mainly cork, also bring in an appreciable income.

      Where the mountain and the plain meet, the dir lands offer rich potentialities, thanks to a light soil and abundant water. Grouped together in large villages, the diara populations (i.e., populations who live on the slope of the dirs) constitute prosperous agricultural communities.

      The Rif of Morocco and the Kabyle of Algeria resemble each other in many ways. Both Berber tribes, they inhabit the same types of wet-mountain slopes covered with oak forests, are similarly attached to a barren soil, and are both inclined to isolationism. In contrast to the way of life of the Berbers of the High and Middle Atlas, stock raising plays only a secondary role in their village life; they are not so much agriculturalists as arboriculturists, although they grow a little sorgo (a sorghum used for fodder), and women grow vegetables in small gardens adjoining their houses. It is, however, the fig and olive trees covering the mountain slopes they inhabit that constitute their principal resources. The Kabyle are also skilled craftsmen, working with wood, silver, and wool. In the past they were also peddlers, selling carpets and jewelry to the people of the plains.

      The Aurès Mountains, standing alone in northeastern Algeria, are perhaps the least developed mountain region in the Maghrib. The Shawia (Chaouïa) populations who inhabit them follow a seminomadic style of life, which is partly agricultural and partly pastoral. They live in terraced stone villages in which the houses are built in tiers, one above the other, the whole being dominated by a guelaa, or fortified granary. When winter comes, the inhabitants of the high valleys lead their flocks to the lowlands surrounding the massif, where they pitch tents or live in caves. Returning to the uplands in summer, they irrigate the land to grow sorghum and vegetables and maintain apricot and apple orchards, while shepherds take the sheep to pastures on the hilltops.

      Despite precarious living conditions, the Atlas Mountains are densely populated—overpopulated even, in certain localities. In the area around Tizi Ouzou in the Great Kabylie, for example, densities reach about 700 persons per square mile (270 per square kilometre). Emigration is a necessity: the mountain regions have become a human reservoir upon which the Maghribian countries draw to obtain the labour force needed for development. Commercial agriculture attracts large numbers of farm workers to the plains either on a seasonal or a permanent basis. The Mitidja Plain of Algeria, for example, has been settled by the Kabyle. In Morocco, the Shluh of the High Atlas have provided labour for the phosphate mines.

      Urban growth has served to increase the volume of the migratory stream that flows down from the mountains; the cities of Algiers, Constantine, Oran, and Casablanca are to a great extent peopled by mountain folk. The shantytowns of Algiers contain numerous Kabyle, and those of Casablanca many Shluh. Many of these urban immigrants find employment as labourers, while others become shopkeepers.

      In Algeria the insecurity that became general in most mountain districts during the nationalist uprising that preceded independence led to the departure of large numbers of people. The exodus from the mountains continued after independence, with many mountain dwellers moving into the plains to occupy houses abandoned by departing Europeans. Rural and urban activities, however, still did not provide employment for all, for many emigrants, mostly from Algeria, sought work in France. To a considerable extent the mountain populations subsist on money sent back by these migratory workers.

The economy

Resources

      Despite their inhospitability and relative inaccessibility, the Atlas Mountains have played an important part in the modern development of the Maghribian countries. The mountain massifs constitute catchment areas with considerable potential. The construction of reservoir dams not only has permitted the storage of enormous amounts of water for irrigating the plains but has also made it possible to generate hydroelectric energy. In Morocco efforts have been made in the last half of the 20th century to exploit the potential of the mountain wadis. In addition to the dams across the Wadi el-Abid and the Wadi el-Rhira on the northern slope of the High Atlas, dams on the southern face have been constructed across the Drâa (Drâa River) and Ziz watercourses. In Algeria the Kabylie region has been developed with hydroelectric stations on the Agrioun and Djendjene wadis.

      The geologic formations of the Atlas are rich in minerals. The Moroccan High Atlas in particular contains important deposits. Among these the most important economically is phosphate, mined principally in the Khouribga area. Other major deposits include lead and zinc from the Middle Atlas and from the Oujda area and copper, silver, and manganese; the output of manganese mining at Imini and Tiounine is transported to Marrakech by overhead cable cars. Anthracite coal is also mined at Oujda. In Algeria iron ore is extracted from the Seba Chioukh Mountains, from Mount Zaccar Rherbi, and from the areas near Ouenza and Bou Khadra, while phosphate is mined at Mount Onk and El Kouif. Lead and zinc also have become important. In Tunisia the High Tell mountains produce phosphate at Al-Qalʿah al-Jardāʾ, iron ore from Mount Djerissa, and lead from Sāqiyat Sīdī Yūsuf. These raw materials are often processed in the coastal towns. The iron ore from Ouenza, for example, supplies the iron-smelting industry of Annaba.

      Among forest products, cork is more important than timber; production is centred in the Kabylia region of Algeria, notably on the Collo Massif.

      The tourist industry also is being developed, particularly in the High Atlas region of Morocco. In the Middle Atlas, long snow-covered slopes suitable for winter sports are located near major towns. In Algeria the establishment of industry in mountain regions is encouraged, to provide employment for the mountain dwellers. At Constantine, the principal city of the mountain regions, as well as at other large cities, a number of industries have been established. Despite these efforts, however, contrasts between the life-styles in the mountains and those in the plains and cities of the Maghrib have by no means diminished, nor are they likely to do so soon.

Transportation

      The Atlas Mountains have their own internal system of communications. Villages are linked by paths that, avoiding the valley bottoms, follow the crest lines of the hills. Travel is on foot or by mule or local bus.

      The massifs constitute an obstacle to traffic; roads and railroads traverse them by means of tunnels and viaducts, which are costly to build. Traffic between Algiers and Constantine, for example, is obliged to cross the Kabylie Massif; the route runs through the Isser River gorges and crosses the mountains at the Portes de Fer Pass. The Chiffa Gorge cuts across the route between Blida and Médéa.

      The relative impenetrability of the mountains explains why they have been avoided by the main transportation routes and why, consequently, they constitute strongholds of ancient traditionalism. Obstacles to communication should not, however, be exaggerated; the mountains also offer many natural connecting links, or passes, that facilitate movement. Such topographical accidents localize communication routes: between the desert and the plains, the nomads use synclinal corridors (i.e., corridors formed by folds in the rocks in which the strata dip inward from both sides toward the centre) that separate the ridges of the Saharan Atlas range. The Biskra Gap, situated between the Ouled-Naïl and Aurès ranges, provides a natural conduit for traffic between Constantine on the Rhumel River and Touggourt in the Sahara. Between Algeria and Morocco both the road and the railroad pass through the Atlas along the Taza Pass, which breaks the continuity of the mountain system between Er-Rif and the Middle Atlas. Passes are natural routes across the mountain barriers and thus constitute strategic points. The focal point of communication in the Great Kabylie, for example, is Tizi Ouzou, at the Genêt Pass, which has become in effect the capital of the massif. To surmount the obstacle formed by the Ouarsenis Massif, situated between Chelif Plain and the Sersou Plateau, it is necessary to pass by way of Theniet al-Haad. The passes of the Moroccan High Atlas also have played a decisive role in the history of relations between Morocco and the vast region known as the western Sudan to the south; the ancient caravan route from Marrakech to the Drâa valley used the n'Test Pass, which thus became of great commercial importance.

Study and exploration

      Attempts by European powers to gain control of northwestern Africa began in the 15th century. Portuguese activity was confined to the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic coast of Morocco, where several forts were established. Spanish activity, initiated at the beginning of the 16th century, included the capture of Mediterranean ports and a slow penetration first of the Rif region and after 1860 into other parts of Morocco. French influence was more extensive. Beginning in 1830 with the capture of Algiers, French control expanded eventually to encompass all but the Rifian part of the Atlas region, including a protectorate over most of Morocco (1912–56). Road building to control the mountains and to facilitate the movement of peoples and goods enhanced communication in what had been an isolated and fragmented region, often weakly controlled by government authorities based in lowland areas. No longer the focus of European exploration or exploitation, the Atlas Mountains are a conspicuous feature of the independent states of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.

Hildebert İsnard Marvin W. Mikesell

Additional Reading

The best general treatment of the physical and human geography of the Atlas Mountains is Jean Despois and René Raynal, Géographie de l'Afrique du nord-ouest (1967, reissued 1975). A good overview of the region is also offered by J.M. Houston, The Western Mediterranean World: An Introduction to Its Regional Landscapes (1964). Information on livelihood and environmental modifications in the Rif Mountains appears in a short work by Marvin W. Mikesell, Northern Morocco: A Cultural Geography (1961, reprinted 1985). The best one-volume survey of the culture of the peoples of the Atlas region is Ernest Gellner and Charles Micaud (eds.), Arabs and Berbers: From Tribe to Nation in North Africa (1972).Marvin W. Mikesell

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