West Germanic languages

Introduction

  group of Germanic languages that developed in the region of the North Sea, Rhine-Weser, and Elbe. Out of the many local West Germanic dialects the following six modern standard languages have arisen: English (English language), Frisian (Frisian language), Dutch (Dutch language) (Netherlandic (Netherlandic language)-Flemish), Afrikaans (Afrikaans language), German (German language), and Yiddish (Yiddish language).

English

      English and Frisian are descended from North Sea Germanic. The most striking changes that distinguish them from the other Germanic languages are the loss of nasal sounds before the Proto-Germanic voiceless fricatives *f, *þ, and *s (contrast the following pairs of words, in which English loses the nasal but German preserves it: before f—soft/sanft; before þ—other/ander; before s—us/uns, goose/Gans); palatalization of Proto-Germanic *k before front vowels and *j, giving modern English ch (English/German pairs: chin/Kinn, birch [Old English birce]/Birke); and palatalization of Proto-Germanic *TYǥ before front vowels, giving modern English y (English/German pairs include yield/gelten, yester-[day]/gestern, yard [Old English geard]/Garten; this palatalized TYǥ merged with the j [y sound] from Proto-Germanic *j: year/Jahr).

      Other changes include palatalization of gg before j to Old English cg (Proto-Germanic *brugjō, pre-Old English *bruggju, Old English brycg ‘bridge'; contrast the unpalatalized ck from gg of German Brücke ‘bridge'); a front reflex of Proto-Germanic *ē¹ (English/German pairs include deed/Tat, seed/Saat, sleep/schlafen, meal/Mahl); and backing and raising of nasalized ā, from Proto-Germanic *ā and *a before nasal plus f, þ, and s (English/German pairs include brought/brachte, thought/dachte, other/ander, and goose/Gans).

      For further information on English, see English language (Scandinavian languages).

Frisian (Frisian language)

      A thousand years or so ago Frisian was apparently spoken throughout a North Sea coastal area extending from the modern Netherlands province of Noord-Holland (North Holland) on up to modern German Schleswig and the adjacent offshore islands. During the following centuries the Frisian of much of this area was gradually replaced by local Dutch and Low German dialects, so that Modern Frisian is now spoken in only three remaining areas: (1) West Frisian, in the Dutch province of Friesland, including the island of Schiermonnikoog and two-thirds of the island of Terschelling (altogether some 400,000 speakers), (2) East Frisian, in the German Saterland (some 1,000 speakers; this area was apparently settled in the 12th or 13th century from the former East Frisian area to the north), and (3) North Frisian, along the west coast of German Schleswig and on the offshore islands of Sylt, Föhr, Amrum, the Halligen, and Helgoland (altogether some 8,000 speakers).

History

      The earliest manuscripts written in Frisian date from the end of the 13th century, though the legal documents that they contain were probably first composed, in part, as early as the 11th century. This stage of the language, until about 1575, is known as Old Frisian. The last written document of this period dates from 1573, after which Frisian was relatively little used as a written language for some three centuries.

      From the start Old Frisian shows all the features that distinguish English and Frisian from the other Germanic languages. These include loss of the nasal sound before Proto-Germanic *f, *þ, and *s (e.g., Proto-Germanic *fimf, *munþ-, and *uns became Old Frisian fīf ‘five,' mūth ‘mouth,' and ūs ‘us'), palatalization of Proto-Germanic *k before front vowels and *j (e.g., Proto-Germanic *kinn- and *lē¹kj- became Old Frisian tzin ‘chin' and lētza ‘physician' [compare English archaic leech]), and palatalization of Proto-Germanic *TYǥ before front vowels (e.g., Proto-Germanic *TYǥeldan- became Old Frisian ielda ‘yield'). This merged with the j from Proto-Germanic *j, as in Proto-Germanic *jē¹r- or Old Frisian iēr ‘year.' In addition, Old Frisian shows palatalization of gg from Proto-Germanic *g before j (e.g., Proto-Germanic *laTYǥjan-, with doubling *laggjan, became Old Frisian ledza ‘to lay'); a front vowel for Proto-Germanic *ē¹, as in Proto-Germanic *dē[eth], Old Frisian dēd; and backing and raising of nasalized ã from Proto-Germanic *ã and Proto-Germanic *a before nasal plus *f, *þ, *s, as in Proto-Germanic *brãxt-, *anþar-, and *gans-, which became Old Frisian brocht ‘brought,' ōther ‘other,' and gōs ‘goose.'

      About the beginning of the 19th century it appeared that the age-old replacement of Frisian by Dutch and Low German would continue unabated and that the language would soon become extinct. But with 19th-century Romanticism a new interest in local life arose, and societies were formed for the preservation of the Frisian language and culture. Very slowly, the aims of this “Frisian movement” came to be realized, especially in the Netherlands province of Friesland, where in 1937 Frisian was accepted as an optional course in elementary schools; a Frisian Academy was founded in 1938; and in 1943 the first Frisian translation of the Bible was published. In 1955 Frisian was approved as the language of instruction in the first two years of elementary school (though only about one-fourth of all schools use it in this way), and in 1956 the use of Frisian in courts of law was approved.

      Despite this gradual reemergence of Frisian, Dutch still functions as the primary standard language of Friesland. Nearly all school instruction is given in Dutch; all daily newspapers are printed in Dutch (though they contain occasional articles in Frisian); and the majority of television and radio broadcasts are in Dutch. There is a small and enthusiastic Frisian literary movement, but its works are not widely read. Furthermore, though Frisian continues to be widely used as the language of everyday oral communication, it is increasingly a “Dutch” Frisian, with numerous borrowings from standard Dutch.

      The status of Frisian in the East and North Frisian areas of Germany is far more tenuous. There German performs all the functions of a standard language, and Frisian serves only as yet another local dialect, comparable to the many surrounding local dialects of Low German. No standard North Frisian or East Frisian exists.

Characteristics

      The following remarks refer to the more or less standard West Frisian that is developing in the province of Friesland.

      Frisian has the following system of consonants (consonant), given here in the usual spellings: stops, p, b, t, d, k, g; fricatives, f, v, s, z, ch, g; nasals, m, n, ng; liquids, l, r; and glides, w, h, j. Examples (given here in part to show the close relationship between Frisian and English) include p, t, and k (unaspirated) in peal ‘pole,' twa ‘two,' and kat ‘cat'; b, d, and the stop symbolized by the letter g in boi ‘boy,' dei ‘day,' and goed ‘good'; f, s, and ch in fiif ‘five,' seis ‘six,' and acht ‘eight'; v, z, and the fricative symbolized by the letter g in tolve ‘twelve,' tûzen ‘thousand,' and wegen ‘ways'; m, n, and ng in miel ‘meal,' need ‘need,' and ring ‘ring'; l and r in laem ‘lamb' and reep ‘rope'; w, h, and j in wy ‘we,' hy ‘he,' and jo ‘you.' As the final letter of a word, voiced b, d, z, and g are generally unvoiced to p, t, s, and ch.

 Frisian has the following system of stressed vowels and diphthongs (see table—>). The symbols given in the table refer to the actual sounds rather than to Frisian spellings, which are often irregular. Frisian also has an unstressed vowel ə (pronounced as the a in English sofa), which occurs only in unstressed syllables.

Dialects

      The Frisian dialects of the Netherlands province of Friesland are, with three exceptions, relatively uniform, though it is customary to make a distinction between Wouden Frisian in the east, Klei Frisian in the west (the variety on which standard Frisian is largely based), and Southwest Corner Frisian in the southwest. The three exceptions are the island dialect of East and West Terschelling and the dialects of the city of Hindeloopen and of the island of Schiermonnikoog. These latter two differ so greatly that they are not intelligible to other speakers of West Frisian and are both dying out. Quite different from any of these is the so-called City Frisian (Stedfrysk, or Stedsk) spoken in the cities of Leeuwarden, Franeker, Harlingen, Bolsward, Sneek, Staveren, and Dokkum. Despite the name, this is not Frisian at all but a variety of Dutch strongly influenced by Frisian. Similar in nature are the dialects of Heerenveen and Kollum, of the middle section of the island of Terschelling, and of Het Bildt (a coastal area northwest of Leeuwarden, diked in and settled by Hollanders during the 16th century).

      East Frisian survives today only in the German Saterland, consisting of the three parishes of Ramsloh, Strücklingen, and Scharrel, each with a slightly different dialect. The area to the north is called East Frisia (German Ostfriesland), and the local dialect East Frisian (German Ostfriesisch), although it is actually not Frisian but the local variety of Low German.

      Though North Frisian is spoken in only a small geographic area by only some 8,000 persons, it exists in an extraordinary number of local dialects, some of which are mutually unintelligible. Because of this, it would be almost impossible to develop a single standard North Frisian that could be used throughout this area. North Frisian dialects are customarily divided into Insular North Frisian (Sylt, Föhr-Amrum, Helgoland) and Continental North Frisian (the Halligen Islands and the coast of Schleswig), the latter in seven main varieties and further subvarieties. Because this linguistic area long bordered on Danish, it was extensively influenced by the neighbouring Danish dialects. In more recent times it has been heavily influenced by German, both standard German and the neighbouring Low German dialects. Today all speakers of North Frisian are bilingual or trilingual; all learn Frisian at home and standard German in school, and many also learn dialectal Low German.

Dutch (Netherlandic, Flemish)

      Dutch, formally called Netherlandic, is the national language of The Netherlands and with French is a national language of Belgium. Popular English usage applies the term Dutch to the language of The Netherlands and the term Flemish to the language of Belgium, but in fact they are one and the same standard language. In its various forms, standard and dialectal, Dutch is the indigenous language of most of The Netherlands (all but the Frisian-speaking province of Friesland), of northern Belgium, and of a small part of France immediately to the west of Belgium. It also is used as the language of administration in the Dutch dependency of the Netherlands Antilles and in Suriname, a former dependency. A derivative of Dutch, Afrikaans (Afrikaans language), is one of the national languages of South Africa.

      As a written language, Dutch is quite uniform; it differs in The Netherlands and Belgium no more than written English does in the United States and Great Britain. As a spoken language, however, it exists in far more varieties than does the English of North America. At one extreme is Standard Dutch (Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands, ‘General Cultured Netherlandic'), which is used for public and official purposes and is the language of instruction in schools and universities. It is everywhere quite uniform, though speakers usually show by their accents the general area from which they come. At the other extreme are the local dialects, used among family and friends and with others from the same region.

History

      Dutch emerged as a structurally distinct branch of West Germanic as the result of language contact between speakers of North Sea Germanic and speakers of the South Germanic “Franconian,” or Frankish. The crucial early period of this contact occurred in the 7th and 8th centuries and resulted from the expansion of Frankish (Merovingian and early Carolingian) power into the western coastal areas that were populated by North Sea Germanic groups. The most important structural characteristic of Dutch is its strikingly anomalous development of i-umlaut; whereas in all other West and North Germanic languages, i-umlaut affected all nonfront vowels, in standard Dutch only ă shows umlaut fronting. In the dialects this limited development of umlaut is found only in the coastal areas (Flanders, Zeeland, Holland); eastern dialects show umlaut developments like those of the neighbouring German dialects and standard German.

      The structural peculiarity of the coastal dialects can best be explained as the result of the imperfect acquisition of Frankish by North Sea Germanic speakers in the period about AD 700. The resulting new form of Frankish, which was structurally affected by contact with North Sea Germanic, first developed in centres such as Ghent and Bruges, both of which gradually rose to great economic and cultural prominence. In the course of the Middle Ages, the local North Sea Germanic dialects of the west were replaced by the restructured Frankish—i.e., Dutch; at the same time, Dutch influence also spread eastward (see Dialects below).

      Little vernacular material from the Low Countries has survived from the period before 1200. There are, for example, glosses of psalms dating to the 10th or 11th century in a dialect from the area around the modern Dutch-German border. Beyond this, only a few sentences and words are recorded in various texts, but a large body of onomastic material also exists. About 1200, the Middle Dutch period begins and from this time exists a large corpus of both literary and nonliterary documents. Though texts from all dialect areas have survived, the texts from Flanders are by far the most numerous.

      The economic and cultural preeminence of the Flemish cities was especially great during the Middle Dutch period, and both scribal and linguistic influences from Flanders can be seen in documents originating in other regions. In the 15th century the cities of Brabant began to surpass the Flemish cities in importance. In turn, partly because of the failure of the southern provinces to break free of Spanish rule, preeminence shifted again in the late 16th century to Amsterdam and the other cities of the Netherlands. It was in the Netherlands during the 17th century that a genuine standard variety arose, yet, in the written language, strong Flemish and Brabant influences remain. Under foreign rule the language lost status in the southern provinces and in the 18th and 19th centuries was relegated to the position of a lingua rustica, with French serving as the standard language. This situation was rectified through political action during the 20th century.

Characteristics

      Modern Standard Dutch has the following consonants (consonant), given here in the usual spellings: stops, p, b, t, d, k; fricatives, f, v, s, z, ch, g; nasals, m, n, ng; liquids, l, r; glides, w, h, j.

      The voiced stops and fricatives b, d, v, z, and g are unvoiced to p, t, f, s, and ch, respectively, as final letters of a word. The spelling shows this in the case of v and z (plural dieven ‘thieves,' huizen ‘houses,' but singular dief ‘thief,' huis ‘house') but does not show it in the case of b, d, and g (plural ribben ‘ribs,' bedden ‘beds,' dagen ‘days,' but singular rib ‘rib,' bed ‘bed,' dag ‘day,' pronounced “rip,” “bet,” “dock”).

 Dutch has three classes of vowels (vowel) and diphthongs: (diphthong) (1) six checked vowels, which are short and always followed by a consonant, (2) 10 free vowels and diphthongs, most of them usually long, which need not be followed by a consonant, and (3) a vowel that occurs only in unstressed syllables. (See table—>—the traditional spelling is to the left, and to the right is a notation, used by some linguists, that indicates the distinctive sounds [phonemes] of the language.) Unlike the English spelling system, which in its basic design has remained essentially unchanged since the days of Chaucer (d. 1400), the Dutch spelling system has undergone a series of official reforms to keep it in line with changes in pronunciation. The principal inconsistencies in the spelling of vowels are the spellings ij and ei, which both symbolize the same diphthong, pronounced somewhat between the ai of English aisle and the ai of English maid (bijt ‘he bites' rhymes with feit ‘fact'), and the spellings ou and au, which both symbolize the same diphthong, pronounced somewhat between the ow of English now and the ow of English low (bouw ‘building' rhymes with nauw ‘narrow'). Free vowels are written with double letters in closed syllables (vuur ‘fire,' boot ‘boat'), but with single letters in open syllables (vuren ‘fires,' boten ‘boats'). In contrast the checked vowels are always written with single letters.

Dialects

      There is no structurally significant linguistic boundary that coincides with the national and standard language boundaries between The Netherlands and Belgium on the one side and Germany on the other; at the level of local dialects, the entire Dutch-German territory from the English Channel to the Alps constitutes a continuum, with only gradual transitions from one village to the next.

      The most important dialect boundaries in Dutch territory run from north to south and separate the area into a coastal group (Flanders, Zeeland, Holland), with the anomalous development of umlaut and sundry North Sea Germanic features; a central area (Brabant, Utrecht), where umlaut developed as in German but, under influence from the coastal dialects, was eliminated from morphological marking; and an eastern area (Limburg, eastern North Brabant, Gelderland), where umlaut alternations are still used for morphological marking. These dialects have traditionally been called “Frankish”; the dialects of the northeastern part of The Netherlands (Overijssel, Drenthe, Groningen) have been called “Saxon” and show certain affinities with Low German dialects to the east. On the basis of other linguistic features, it is also possible to group together the dialects to the south and to the north of the Rhine and Meuse rivers.

      Pressure from the standard language has made traditional local dialects in The Netherlands extinct or moribund in many areas. In Belgium, however, the dialects have survived to a far greater degree.

Afrikaans (Afrikaans language)

      Afrikaans is one of the official languages of South Africa, where it is the native language of roughly equal numbers of whites and nonwhites. Few languages have engendered as much controversy, with regard to both historical development and place in modern society.

History

      Afrikaans is derived from a colonial dialect of Dutch (“Cape Dutch”). The Dutch presence in southern Africa began in 1652, when the Dutch East India Company took the first steps in establishing a station at the Cape of Good Hope. The European colonial population grew slowly, and only about half was of Dutch origin; in addition, there were considerable numbers of Germans and French. The mixing of Dutch dialects with the languages of non-Dutch Europeans has often been cited as a central factor in the divergence of Afrikaans from Dutch, but this view is linguistically flawed; among a highly similar European colonial population in the New Netherland colony in North America, there also developed a colonial dialect, but one that deviated little from the dialects of Holland and Utrecht provinces.

      The crucial factor in the formation of Afrikaans was the development of a creolized variety of Cape Dutch among both indigenous Khoisan peoples and the imported slave population of the colony. As a result of the intimate interaction of a part of the European population with the Khoisan and slaves, a variety of the colonial dialect arose. This variety contained many features that had first arisen in the creolized variety. Afrikaans is then a product of a cross between the colonial dialect itself and a creolized variety of that dialect and is therefore not considered a creole but rather a partially creolized language. To this day, however, varieties exist, especially among nonwhite groups, that display many more creolelike features than the standard does. Standard Afrikaans is lexically extremely close to Dutch but has a markedly simplified morphology (e.g., lost are person and number markings on verbs, strong verb root alternations, and nominal gender) and a number of syntactic innovations (e.g., double-negation with mandatory clause-final nie).

      Both the colonial dialect and the creolized variety developed in the first half-century or so of the colony's history, but Afrikaans-like constructions are first attested—only sporadically—from the late 18th and early 19th centuries. About the middle of the 19th century, the effort to make Afrikaans a literary language began. It came gradually to be used in newspapers. It was adopted for use in schools in 1914 and was accepted for use in the Dutch Reformed Church in 1919. In 1925 the South African Parliament declared it to be an official language, replacing Dutch, and Afrikaans was retained as an official language in the new constitution of 1996.

Characteristics

      Afrikaans has the following consonants (consonant), given here in the conventional spellings: stops, p, b, t, d, k, gh/g; fricatives, f/v, w, s, z, g; nasals, m, n, ng; liquids, l, r; glides, h, j. There are numerous differences between Afrikaans and Dutch (Dutch language). Dutch -g- (-gg-) is a voiced fricative, but Afrikaans -g- (-gg-) is in many instances a voiced stop. Unlike Dutch, Afrikaans also has this voiced stop initially in a few loanwords. Dutch has voiced fricatives initially (v-, z-, g-); corresponding words have voiceless initial fricatives in Afrikaans. Afrikaans, however, has voiced z- in loanwords: Zoeloe ‘Zulu.' Dutch has initial s plus fricative ch as in schoen ‘shoe'; corresponding words have s plus k in Afrikaans: skoen. Dutch has -ft, -st, and -cht as in gift ‘poison,' nest ‘nest,' nacht ‘night'; corresponding words show loss of -t in Afrikaans: gif, nes, and nag.

 As in Dutch, uu, ee, oo, and aa are written in Afrikaans with single letters in open syllables, and single consonant letters are doubled in open syllables to show that the preceding vowel is short. See table—> for Afrikaans system of vowels (usual spelling to the left; notation used by linguists to indicate distinctive sounds to the right).

German (German language)

      German is spoken throughout a large area in central Europe, where it is the national language of Germany and of Austria and one of the three official languages of Switzerland (the others are French and Italian, and Romansh has a special status). From this homeland it has been carried by emigration to many other parts of the world; there are German-speaking communities in North and South America, South Africa, and Australia.

      As a written language German is quite uniform, differing in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland no more than written English does in the United States and the British Commonwealth. As a spoken language, however, German exists in far more varieties than English. At one extreme is Standard German (Hochsprache), based on the written form of the language and used in radio, television, public lectures, the theatre, schools, and universities. It is relatively uniform, although speakers often reveal regional accents. At the other extreme are the local dialects, which differ from village to village. Between these two extremes there is a continuous scale of speech forms; in cities these forms are often close to the standard language and are called Colloquial German (Umgangssprache).

History

      From the point of view of the modern local dialects, the territory within which German and Dutch are spoken is a single speech area. It is possible to travel from Austria, northern Italy, and much of Switzerland into Germany, eastern France (Alsace and part of Lorraine), Luxembourg, northern Belgium, and The Netherlands without encountering a village where the local speech is suddenly different. The only sharp breaks occur when one enters the French-speaking parts of France and Belgium or the Frisian-speaking parts of The Netherlands and Germany.

       Results of the High German Consonant Shift, TableThe most striking dialect differences within this large area are those that divide Dutch–Low German in the lowlands of the north from High German in the highlands of the south. When the Germanic tribes migrated into southern Germany during the early centuries AD, their speech had the voiceless stops p, t, and k in much the same distribution as in modern English. Then, probably during the 6th century, there occurred a change customarily called the High German consonant shift. At the beginning of words and when doubled, p, t, and k came to be pronounced as affricates; after a vowel they came to be pronounced as long fricatives. See table (Results of the High German Consonant Shift, Table) for a comparison of modern results with related English words.

 These changes occurred in the south of the German speech area and then spread north, some extending farther than others. The situation at the end of the 19th century was as indicated in the figure—>. Line 2, maken/machen, is generally chosen as the boundary between Low German and High German, because it is typical for the shift of p, t, and k after vowels to ff, ss, and ch, respectively (hopen/hoffen, bīten/beissen, maken/machen), and of t and tt to z and tz, respectively (ten/zehn, sitten/sitzen). The shift of ik ‘I' to ich is indicated by line 1, which shows that the shift of k to ch after a vowel in this particular word spread unusually far. Line 3, which indicates the shift of Dorp ‘village' to Dorf (compare archaic English thorp), shows that shifted p after r and l did not spread as far north as the shifted p, t, and k after a vowel. And line 4, indicating the shift of dat ‘that' to das, shows that the shift of t to s after a vowel spread still less far north in this word (and in a few others: it/es ‘it,' wat/was ‘what'). The striking way in which these lines fan out in the west (in the area along the Rhine River) has led to their being referred to as the Rhenish fan.

      The shift of p when doubled or at the beginning of a word occurred in a much smaller area. Line 5, showing the shift of Appel ‘apple' to Apfel, lies wholly within the High German speech area and is customarily used to subdivide it into Middle German (Appel) and Upper German (Apfel) areas. Line 6, which indicates the shift of Pund ‘pound' to Pfund, follows much the same course as does line 5 in the west, but it then runs north to join the maken/machen line; it is customarily used to distinguish West Middle German (Appel, Pund) from East Middle German (Appel, Fund—the latter being more common than Upper German Pfund).

      As indicated above, Old High German grew out of the South Germanic branch, but both Old Saxon and Old Dutch also can be regarded as forms of South Germanic, albeit with differing ties to North Sea Germanic. Only after the consonant shift is there justification in speaking of a “(High) German” language distinct from the rest of South Germanic. The spread of early loans from Latin (Latin language) throughout all Germanic languages indicates that, at the time of their borrowing, a continuum of mutually intelligible dialects must still have existed, though differences between widely separated points in the continuum may have been significant. The modern German forms of these loans show that they were borrowed before the consonant shift, since they show its effects. Examples include Latin pondō, English pound, but German Pfund; Latin piper, English pepper, but German Pfeffer; Latin tegula, English tile, but German Ziegel; Latin (via) strāta ‘paved (road),' English street, but German Strasse; Latin catillus, English kettle, but German Kessel; and Latin coquus, English cook, but German Koch.

      Toward the end of the 4th century the great migrations (German Völkerwanderung) of Germanic tribes resulted in an expansion of the Germanic-speaking territory. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes crossed the Channel to England; Franks moved southwest into northern France and southwestern central Germany; and Alemanni, Bavarians, and Langobardi moved south into southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and northern Italy. At the same time the area east of the Elbe and Saale rivers was largely vacated by Germanic speakers, and Slavic speakers moved in.

      In the southern area settled by Franks, Alemanni, and Bavarians, the first Old High German written records began to appear during the 2nd half of the 8th century. Their language is best described as a collection of monastery dialects; there is a certain uniformity in the writings of any given monastery but little for the area as a whole. The first documents are translations into German of Latin word lists. Later documents include prose translations of writings by St. Isidore of Sevilla (Isidore of Sevilla, Saint) (made c. 800) and by the Syrian Tatian (c. 830), as well as Otfrid's Evangelienbuch (c. 870), which introduced a new verse form with end rhyme. This literature reached its highest point in the able translations and interpretations of the Swiss scholar Notker Labeo (d. 1022). From the north (the Old Low German or Old Saxon speech area), the most extensive documents preserved are Heliand (c. 830), a life of Christ in alliterative verse, and a fragment of a poem based on the book of Genesis.

      In this period there were many borrowings from Latin, nearly all connected with Christianization of the Germans. Because these borrowings were made after the consonant shift, they do not show its effects. Examples include predigōn (modern German predigen ‘to preach'), from Latin praedicāre; tempal (modern German Tempel ‘temple'), from Latin templum; and spiagal (modern German Spiegel ‘mirror'), from Latin speculum. On the other hand, borrowings of this period reflect sound changes that had occurred in popular Latin, such as the change of Latin c before e from a k sound to ts in cella ‘cell' and crucem ‘cross,' borrowed into Old High German as zella, krūzi, modern German Zelle, Kreuz (the letter z in the German and Old High German examples represents the sound of ts); or the change of Latin medial -b- to -v- in tabula ‘table,' borrowed into Old High German as tavala, modern German Tafel.

      Several developments justify the usual assumption of a new period, the language of which is called Middle High German, beginning in roughly 1050. First, there were changes in the language itself, among which were the unvoicing of final b, d, and g (compare Old High German grab ‘grave,' rad ‘wheel,' and tag ‘day' with Middle High German grap, rat, and tac; in modern German these words are again spelled Grab, Rad, and Tag but are pronounced with final /p/, /t/, and /k/) and the reduction of the vowels of unstressed syllables to a /ə/, usually spelled e (e.g., in the plural of the word for ‘day,' the Old High German nominative-accusative form was taga, the genitive was tago, and the dative was tagun, but for these Middle High German had tage, tage, and tagen, respectively, and modern German has Tage, Tage, and Tagen). Second, there were great changes in the geographic area in which German was spoken. In the west the Franks of northern France had become romanized, and the French-German language border had assumed approximately its present location; in the east, on the other hand, German began to spread into Slavic territory, a process that was to continue for many centuries and to be reversed only at the end of World War II. Third, writing became independent of the monasteries, and the number of written documents soon increased greatly in both north and south. In the south, especially, a remarkable literature developed that included the courtly epic and Minnesang. There is clear evidence of a trend toward a standard Middle High German literary language, though it seems to have had no influence on ordinary speech. Because this literature was based largely on French models, many French words were borrowed into German.

      Four events—the growth of trade, the rise of a middle class, the invention of the printing press, and the Reformation—had great influence on the development of the language. In the north, because of the prosperity of the Hanseatic League, a standard Low German written language began to develop, though it never reached full growth and probably had little influence on everyday speech. In the south the dialects that had arisen in the recently settled East Middle German area were relatively uniform and contained elements from both West Middle German and Upper German. Gradually these East Middle German dialects came to be used as the official languages of the chancelleries of the area, including that of Saxony, and on the latter—the East Middle German dialect of Saxony—Martin Luther based the language of his widely read Bible translation (1522–34). The growth of this type of German, which developed gradually into modern Standard German, was aided by the printers' desire to make their books appeal to the widest possible audience.

      Three striking vowel changes are characteristic of this period. In the southeast, as early as the 12th century, the long vowels ī, ū, and ṻ (IPA y) came to be diphthongized (diphthong) to ei, ou, and öü (IPA øy); this feature is known as the New High German diphthongization. By the 15th century these new diphthongs had spread to East Middle German, and in the standard language they merged with the old diphthongs ei, ou, and öü. Examples include Middle High German mîn ‘my,' hûs ‘house,' and hiuser ‘houses' with the monophthongs ī, ū, and ṻ, in contrast to ein ‘a,' troum ‘dream,' and tröume ‘dreams' with the diphthongs ei, ou, and öü, but modern Standard German mein, Haus, and Häuser appear with the same diphthongs (ai, au, and oi) as ein, Traum, and Träume.

      By a specifically Middle German development, the diphthongs iə, uə, and üə, still preserved in the southern dialects, were monophthongized to long ī, ū, and ṻ; this is the New High German monophthongization. Examples include Middle High German tief ‘deep,' vuoz ‘foot,' and vüeze ‘feet' with the diphthongs iə, uə, and üə, contrasted with modern Standard German tief, Fuss, and Füsse with the monophthongs ī, ū, and ṻ. Short vowels remained short in closed syllables before long consonants but were lengthened in open syllables before a short consonant plus an unstressed vowel.

      The outstanding developments of the modern period have been the increasing standardization of High German and its increasing acceptance as the supradialectal form of the language. In writing, it is almost the only form used (except for limited printings of dialect literature); in speech, it is the first or second language of virtually the entire population.

      Although Standard German is clearly based on the East Middle German dialects, it is not identical with any one of them; it has accepted and standardized many forms from other areas, notably the Upper German sound pf (Pfund, Apfel) and also large numbers of individual words in the forms of other dialect areas. Because it is the only type of German taught in schools, its spoken form is based to a large extent on its written form; and the spoken form that carries the greatest prestige (that of stage, screen, radio, and so on) uses a largely Low German pronunciation of this written form. As a result, the spoken form of modern Standard German has often been aptly described as “High German with Low German sounds.”

Characteristics of modern Standard German

      German has the following consonants (consonant), given here in phonetic symbols because the spelling often varies: stops, p, b, t, d, k, g; fricatives, f, v, ç∼x; sibilants, s, z, š, ž; nasals, m, n, ŋ; liquids, l, r; glides, h, j. German ç∼x, spelled ch, is the voiceless velar fricative x after a, ā, o, ō, u, ū, and au but is the voiceless palatal fricative ç in other phonetic environments. The German sound ž occurs only in loanwords from other languages.

      In the orthography, German w always indicates a v sound symbolized /v/; German v spells an f sound in native words but a v sound in loanwords. German sp and st spell the sounds sp and st in most positions, but they spell šp /shp/ and št /sht/ at the beginnings of words or word stems. In other positions the š (sh) sound is spelled sch—e.g., Schiff ‘ship.' German z always indicates /ts/. The spelling tz marks a preceding vowel as short, and the spelling z marks it as long.

      Voiced b, d, g, v, and z do not occur at the ends of words, at the ends of parts of compound words, before suffixes beginning with a consonant, or before endings in s or t. In these positions they are replaced in pronunciation (though not in spelling) by the corresponding voiceless consonants, namely /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, and /s/. For example, the g in Tage ‘days' is pronounced as English g, and the g in Tag ‘day' is pronounced as English k.

 See the table—> of the German vowel system (given in phonetic symbols). Though the spelling does not always indicate the difference between short and long vowels, the following devices are used more or less consistently: (1) A vowel is always short if followed by a double consonant letter—e.g., still ‘still,' wenn ‘if,' Rasse ‘race,' offen ‘open,' Hütte ‘hut'—in contrast to the long vowels of Stil ‘style,' wen ‘whom,' Glas ‘glass,' Ofen ‘oven,' Hüte ‘hats.' (2) A vowel is always long if followed by an (unpronounced) h—e.g., ihnen ‘to them,' stehlen ‘to steal,' Kahn ‘barge,' wohnen ‘to dwell,' Ruhm ‘fame'—in contrast to the short vowels of innen ‘inside,' stellen ‘to place,' kann ‘can,' Wonne ‘bliss,' dumm ‘dumb.' (3) A vowel is always long if written double—e.g., Beet ‘(flower) bed,' Staat ‘state,' Boot ‘boat'—in contrast to the short vowels of Bett ‘bed (for sleeping),' Stadt ‘city,' Gott ‘god'; ie counts as the doubled spelling of i—e.g., long i (ī) in Miete ‘rent' but short i (i) in Mitte ‘middle.' (4) A vowel (except unstressed e) is always long when it stands at the end of a word.

      The “plain” vowels—a, o, u, ā, ō, ū, au—often alternate with the “umlaut” vowels—e, ö, ü, ē, ȫ, ṻ, oi, respectively—as in the following examples with plain vowels in the singular but umlauted vowels in the plural: Gast ‘guest,' Gäste; Gott ‘god,' Götter; Mutter ‘mother,' Mütter. As these examples show, the vowel sounds e, ē, and oi are spelled ä, ä, and äu when they are the umlaut of a, ā, and au sounds. Gast–Gäste, Vater–Väter, Braut–Bräute. Otherwise they are generally spelled e, eh, or ee (beten ‘to pray,' geht ‘goes,' Beet ‘[flower] bed'), and eu (Leute ‘people').

      The sound /ai/ is generally spelled ei: Seite ‘side,' nein ‘no,' though in a few words ai: Saite ‘string (of an instrument),' Kaiser ‘emperor.' The schwa sound, /ə/, pronounced as the unstressed a in English sofa, is spelled e: beginnen/bəgínən/ ‘to begin,' geredet/gərēdət/ ‘spoken.'

William G. Moulton Anthony F. Buccini

Yiddish (Yiddish language)

      Although there were some 11 million speakers of Yiddish before World War II, approximately half of them were killed in the Nazi Holocaust. There are several million Yiddish speakers today, including native speakers and those who use it as a second language. Most speakers live in the United States and Israel. They are served by literary journals and an active press, including a number of daily newspapers.

History

      Yiddish, although Germanic, is not a typical Germanic language; it includes not only Germanic features but also elements from Romance, Hebrew-Aramaic, and Slavic languages. A cursory examination of the German component of Yiddish indicates that no Yiddish dialect stands in a one-to-one relationship to any German dialect. The language had its beginnings in the 10th century when Jews (Jew) from northern France and northern Italy settled in the Rhineland. These early Jewish settlements were dislocated by the Crusades and later by the persecutions that followed in the wake of the Black Death. The subsequent move to Slavic territory had enormous influence on the development of the language.

      Onomastic evidence (evidence from recorded proper names) for Yiddish is known from 1096, and glosses in biblical commentaries are several decades older. The earliest known connected text is a rhymed couplet inscribed in a Hebrew holiday prayer book from Worms that bears the date 1272–73. The earliest extensive manuscript, known as the Cambridge Yiddish Codex, is explicitly dated Nov. 9, 1382. It excites the interest of Germanicists for its version of “Dukus Horant” (a poem from the Hildesage of the Kudrun [Gudrun] epic known from the Ambras Manuscript copied by Hans Ried, 1502/04–16), which antedates the earliest extant manuscript of the Hildesage by at least 130 years. The documentary history of Yiddish is unbroken thereafter to the present day. Unique evidence for spoken Yiddish is incorporated in an extensive body of rabbinical responsa (published rabbinical opinions on matters of religious law) beginning in the 15th century. Testimony before the rabbinical court, which was recorded verbatim, provides unusual insight into the colloquial language.

      Scholars divide the history of Yiddish into four periods: Earliest Yiddish, to 1250; Old Yiddish, 1250–1500; Middle Yiddish, 1500–1750; and Modern Yiddish, 1750 to the present. The earliest literary tradition had a Western Yiddish dialectal base; writing in this literary dialect continued into the Modern Yiddish period long after the major population centres had shifted to the east. The establishment of the modern literary language on an Eastern Yiddish base occurred only in the early 19th century. At the same time a new style in the language of Yiddish Bible translation emerged, free from the constraints of the original Hebrew syntax and of the stricture against the use of Yiddish words of Hebrew-Aramaic origin in translating from Hebrew. The continuous contact of Yiddish speakers with Hebrew-Aramaic texts and, in the European language area, with one or another Germanic or Slavic language have been important factors in the development of the language.

Characteristics

      Because of the conditions under which Yiddish developed (i.e., the numerous contacts it has had with other languages), it is of great interest to scholars.

      Yiddish uses all the letters of the Hebrew (Hebrew language) alphabet, including traditional word-final variants, which in 1961 were reintroduced into the orthography of Russian Yiddish. Several letters occur only in words of Hebrew-Aramaic origin, which retain their traditional spelling in many countries.

      The vowel system of Standard Yiddish consists of the simple vowels i, e, a, o, and u and the diphthongs ej, aj, and oj. Under Slavic influence a palatal series of consonants has emerged. The Yiddish x corresponding to German ch unlike German has no palatal variant, the /ng/ sound is simply a positional variant of n, there is no glottal stop (a sound made by closure of the vocal cords), and word-final voicing is distinctive (phonemic; i.e., it carries a change in meaning). Words of Hebrew-Aramaic and Slavic origin have introduced a rich variety of consonant clusters that do not appear in German. Intonation contours, apparently related to the chant with which the Talmud is studied, convey syntactic-semantic distinctions independently.

      Case inflections, preserved only in the singular, appear in noun modifiers but only rarely in nouns themselves. The dative and accusative cases have merged in the masculine; the nominative and accusative cases have merged in the feminine and neuter. All prepositions govern the dative case. The system of forming noun plurals, basically of German origin, is enriched by word elements of Hebrew origin. Many nouns differ from their German cognates in both gender and plural form. A well-developed system of diminution uses word elements largely of German origin but on a Slavic grammatical model. A semantically significant distinction between inflected and uninflected predicate adjectives has emerged, while the difference between weak and strong adjectives, a characteristic of other Germanic languages, has effectively disappeared. The verb is inflected only in the present indicative. Other tenses and moods are expressed by means of auxiliary words. In normal word order the inflected verb immediately follows the subject; any remaining part of the verb phrase occurs as close to the inflected verb as possible. The special word order of the German subordinate clause is unknown, and verb-initial constructions generally express consecutiveness rather than interrogation.

      In the Yiddish vocabulary, words and word elements borrowed from a number of different languages occur together and often combine freely in a manner unfamiliar to the languages from which they derive. Furthermore, when words borrowed from different languages are partially alike, one of them may be analyzed and inflected in terms historically appropriate to the other, thereby yielding blends of complex etymology. In addition, a highly productive system of prefixing yields verbs that are German in form but derive their meanings from an underlying Slavic model.

Dialects

      The basic dialectal division is between Western Yiddish, which occurs largely within the German language area, and Eastern Yiddish in the Slavic-speaking areas. Eastern Yiddish is traditionally subdivided into Northeastern Yiddish and Southern Yiddish, the latter consisting of Central Yiddish and Southeastern Yiddish. The phonological criteria on which this division is based are typically reflected in the variants of the phrase ‘to buy meat': Western Yiddish kāfn flāš, Central Yiddish kojfn flajš, Southeastern Yiddish kojfn flejš, Northeastern Yiddish kejfn flejš. Other phonological and many lexical differences reinforce the distinctness of Western Yiddish. In the east, Central Yiddish is further distinguished by a full set of contrasts in vowel length, while the varieties of Southeastern Yiddish have made changes in vowel quality that have led to the types hont ‘hand,' huz ‘house,' and rign ‘rain.' Northeastern Yiddish is characterized by the loss of the neuter gender. Standard Yiddish adheres more closely to Northeastern Yiddish in its sound system and more closely to Southern Yiddish in its grammatical patterns.

Marvin Irving Herzog

Additional Reading

Frisian

General works with discussions of historical and dialectal developments are Thomas L. Markey, Frisian (1981); Bo Sjölin, Einführung in das Friesische (1969); and Paolo Ramat, Il Frisone: Introduzione allo studio della filologia frisone (1967). Old Frisian grammars with reading selections are Wilhelm Heuser, Altfriesisches Lesebuch mit Grammatik und Glossar (1903, reprinted 1972); and Walther Steller, Abriss der altfriesischen Grammatik (1928). Modern standard West Frisian is described in Pieter Meijes Tiersma, Frisian Reference Grammar (1985); J. Anglade, Petit manuel de Frison moderne de l'ouest (1966); and K. Fokkema, Beknopte friese Spraakkunst, 2nd ed. (1967).

Dutch, or Netherlandic

General discussions of the language are B.C. Donaldson, Dutch: A Linguistic History of Holland and Belgium (1983); Pierre Brachin, The Dutch Language: A Survey (1985; originally published in French, 1977); and C.G.N. de Vooys, Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Taal, 5th rev. ed. (1952, reissued 1975). Historical grammars of the language are Moritz Schönfeld, Schönfelds Historische grammatica van het Nederlands, 8th ed., edited by A. van Loey (1970); Jan Goossens, Historische Phonologie des Niederländischen (1974); C. van Bree, Historische grammatica van het Nederlands (1987); and Jozef van Loon, Historische fonologie van het Nederlands (1986). Discussions of the earliest stage of Dutch are in Rolf H. Bremmer, Jr., and Arend Quak (eds.), Zur Phonologie und Morphologie des Altniederländischen (1992); and Anthony F. Buccini, “Onstaan en vroegste ontwikkeling van het Nederlandse taallandschap,” Taal en tongval, 48 (Themanummer 8):8–66 (1995). Middle Dutch is treated in Colette M. Van Kerckvoorde, An Introduction to Middle Dutch (1993); Johannes Franck, Mittelniederländische Grammatik, 2nd rev. ed. (1910, reissued 1971); A. van Loey, Middelnederlandse spraakkunst, 8th improved ed., 2 vol. (1976); and F.A. Stoett, Middelnederlandsche spraakkunst: Syntaxis, 3rd rev. ed. (1923). Grammars of the modern standard are B.C. Donaldson, Dutch Reference Grammar, 3rd ed. (1987); M.C. Van Den Toorn, Nederlandse grammatica, 9th rev. ed. (1984); and G. Geerts et al. (eds.), Algemene Nederlandse spraakkunst (1984).

Afrikaans

A comprehensive grammar of the standard language is B.C. Donaldson, A Grammar of Afrikaans (1993). Treatments of the language's historical development are Fritz Ponelis, The Development of Afrikaans (1993); and Edith Raidt, Einführung in Geschichte und Struktur des Afrikaans (1983).

German

The history of the language is covered in W.B. Lockwood, An Informal History of the German Language, with Chapters on Dutch and Afrikaans, Frisian, and Yiddish, new ed. (1976); R.E. Keller, The German Language (1978); John T. Waterman, A History of the German Language, rev. ed. (1976, reissued 1991); C.J. Wells, German: A Linguistic History to 1945 (1985); and Hugo Moser, Deutsche Sprachgeschichte, 6th rev. ed. (1969). Concise overviews of grammatical developments are Charles V.J. Russ, Historical German Phonology and Morphology (1978), Richard von Kienle, Historische Laut- und Formenlehre des Deutschen, 2nd rev. ed. (1969); Günther Schweikle, Germanische-deutsche Sprachgeschichte im Überblick, 3rd improved and enlarged ed. (1990); and Ingerid Dal, Kurze deutsche Syntax auf historischer Grundlage, 3rd improved ed. (1966). Treatments of older stages of the language are Wilhelm Braune, Althochdeutsche Grammatik, 14th ed., rev. by Hans Eggers (1987); Stefan Sonderegger, Althochdeutsche Sprache und Literatur, 2nd rev. and enlarged ed. (1987); and Hermann Paul, Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik, 23rd ed., rev. by Peter Wiehl and Siegfried Grosse (1989). Grammars of the modern standard are Gerhard Helbig and Joachim Buscha, Deutsche Grammatik, 16th ed. (1994); and Günther Drosdowski et al. (eds.), Der Duden in 10 Bänden, 10 vol. in various editions (1984–91). Further useful works on the modern language are Charles V.J. Russ, The German Language Today: A Linguistic Introduction (1994); and Anthony Fox, The Structure of German (1990). Descriptions of various dialects are found in Charles V.J. Russ (ed.), The Dialects of Modern German (1989). Sociolinguistic aspects of German are discussed in Stephen Barbour and Patrick Stevenson, Variation in German: A Critical Approach to German Sociolinguistics (1990).

Old Saxon and Low German

A historical overview of linguistic developments in northern Germany is Willy Sanders, Sachsensprache, Hansesprache, Plattdeutsch: sprachgeschichtliche Grundzüge des Niederdeutschen (1982). Historical stages and dialects are described in Jan Goossens (ed.), Niederdeutsche: Sprache und Literatur, vol. 1, Sprache (1973). Grammars of older stages are Irmengard Rauch, The Old Saxon Language (1992); Johan Hendrik Gallée, Altsächsische Grammatik, 3rd ed. (1993); and Agathe Lasch, Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik, 2nd ed. (1974).William G. Moulton Anthony F. Buccini

Yiddish

Uriel Weinreich, “Yiddish Language,” in Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 16 (1971), columns 789–798; Solomon A. Birnbaum, Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar (1979); and Max Weinreich, History of the Yiddish Language (1980; originally published in Yiddish, 1973), provide overviews. The main works up to 1958 are listed in Uriel Weinreich and Beatrice Weinreich, Yiddish Language and Folklore: A Selective Bibliography for Research (1959). Significant works include For Max Weinreich on His Seventieth Birthday: Studies in Jewish Languages, Literature, and Society (1964); compilations of studies in language, folklore, and literature, all titled The Field of Yiddish, 1st collection ed. by Uriel Weinreich (1954), 2nd collection, ed. by Uriel Weinreich (1965), 3rd collection, ed. by Marvin I. Herzog, Wita Ravid, and Uriel Weinreich (1969), 4th collection, ed. by Marvin I. Herzog et al. (1980), and 5th collection, ed. by David Goldberg (1993); Joshua A. Fishman, Yiddish in America: Socio-linguistic Description and Analysis (1965); and Marvin I. Herzog, The Yiddish Language in Northern Poland: Its Geography and History (1965). Uriel Weinreich, Modern English-Yiddish, Yiddish-English Dictionary (1968, reissued 1990); Yuda A. Yofe (Judah A. Joffe) and Yudl Marḳ (Yudel Mark) (eds.), Groyser erṭerbukh fun der Yidisher shprakh (1961– ); and Marvin I. Herzog (ed.), The Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry (1992– ), are useful reference works.Marvin Irving Herzog

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