South American Indian

▪ people

Introduction

      member of any of the aboriginal peoples inhabiting the continent of South America.

      The customs and social systems of South American peoples are closely and naturally related to the environments in which they live. These environmental relationships are mediated by the systems of technology that the people use to exploit their resources.

      Four basic types of social and cultural organization of South American peoples emerge from the archaeological and historical records: (1) central Andean irrigation civilizations, (2) chiefdoms of the northern Andes and the circum-Caribbean, (3) tropical-forest farming villages, and (4) nomadic hunters and gatherers (hunting and gathering culture). Each type developed in its own fashion during thousands of years, and since the 16th century each has made a distinctive adjustment to the impact of European civilization.

      Early peoples (primitive culture), hunters and gatherers with no knowledge of agriculture, gradually worked their way across the Bering Strait in pursuit of food and meandered over North and South America in small, migratory bands for thousands of years. They reached Tierra del Fuego in approximately 6000 BC, after passing through the bottleneck of Central America, dispersing in the rugged terrain of the northern Andes, following the resource-laden Caribbean coastline eastward, and filtering southward through the tropical lowlands now making up part of Venezuela, the Guianas (Guyana), and Brazil. They also hunted game through the highland basins of the central Andes and hunted and fished along the west coast of South America until they reached land's end.

The people

 In South America, native language families encompassed large blocks of territory and numerous societies. They cut across different cultural and social types and are found represented in different geographical and environmental surroundings. Languages may be grouped in many ways, but the major language groupings or families of South America may be conveniently divided into the Macro-Chibchan (Chibchan languages), Andean-Equatorial (including Tupian), Ge-Pano-Carib, and Hokan. This is the most simplified classification of South American Indian languages (see also South American Indian languages).

      In the 1500s, the central Andes, the area of greatest population density in South America (about 10 persons per square mile), was sparsely populated compared to centres of Old World civilization. Yet its population of approximately 3,500,000, crowded into narrow coastal valleys and small highland basins on approximately 1 percent of Peru's total land area, constituted a much higher density than could be found in any other part of South America. The chiefdoms of the northern Andes, northern Venezuela, and the Antilles had an estimated total population of 1,900,000, with densities ranging from 6.6 to 1.1 persons per square mile (2.5 to 0.4 persons per square kilometre). The southern Andes was inhabited by the Atacama, Diaguita, and Araucanians (Araucanian), whose combined population was possibly 1,131,000, with a density range of 0.38 to seven persons per square mile. Tropical-forest peoples numbered about 2,200,000 and had a density of 0.6 per square mile. Hunting and gathering peoples of the Chilean archipelago, Patagonia, the Gran Chaco, and eastern Brazilian uplands had a combined population of less than 800,000 and a density range of 0.2 (Chilean archipelago) to 1.1 (western Chaco).

      The population density of the central Andes was about 200 times greater than that of the hunters and gatherers, 20 times greater than that of the tropical-forest farmers, and 30 to 40 percent greater than that of the Araucanians and the chiefdoms of the northern Andes and the circum-Caribbean.

The prehistoric period

      Human (human migration) life-forms did not evolve in the New World, despite certain claims to the contrary which have never been taken seriously by most scholars. Migrants crossed from Siberia to Alaska, probably some 20,000 to 35,000 years ago (or perhaps earlier), when there was a land and ice bridge between the two continents. They seem to have remained locked in the northwestern sector of North America for eons, held back by impenetrable glacial formations. When the glacial cap retreated and valleys opened up, people (then existing as hunter-gatherers) began to follow the southward progression of game animals, fanning out across North America and down through Central America into South America, again a process occupying thousands of years. Archaeological discoveries have unearthed human skeletal remains in association with now-extinct species of animals and in geological deposits of the last phases of the Ice Age.

Early man

      Archaeological evidence demonstrates that South America was occupied by early man at least 10,000 years ago, ample time for high civilizations to have evolved in the central Andes and for ecological adjustments to have been worked out elsewhere on the continent. Scientific dating techniques establish that agriculture (agriculture, origins of) was practiced along the Peruvian coast at least as early as 2300 BC. By 1000 BC agricultural societies flourished. This does not mean that all of South America had reached this stage of development nor that it was densely populated by farming communities. On the contrary, the continent was spottily inhabited by simply organized hunters and gatherers who then occupied the most favourable regions. As knowledge diffused from the central Andes to other parts of South America and as agriculture and other techniques were adopted by those peoples living in favourable environments, farming communities took form, and populations among them began to increase. Thus, on the foundation of early hunting and gathering societies, the more complex social and cultural systems gradually were built in those areas where agriculture developed; cultural growth and social complexity followed apace. Hunters and gatherers were pushed out of the farming regions to agriculturally marginal areas, where some of them are found today.

      The original migrants to the New World had no knowledge of the domestication of plants or animals, with the exception of dogs, which were used in hunting. Recent discoveries in Mexico indicate that agriculture was independently discovered in the New World in roughly the same era that it was established in the Middle East (about 7000–8000 BC) and that New World civilizations were built on an indigenous agricultural base.

      It is known archaeologically that cultural influences from Asia, as well as latter-day migrations of people such as the Eskimo, continued to impinge on parts of the New World over the millennia, but New World cultural developments that culminated in the formation of high civilizations in Mexico and Peru were overwhelmingly the product of native, independent invention in almost all spheres of cultural and social life. Sporadic influences probably reached Peru and the western parts of the tropical forests from across the Pacific Ocean, but their effect on the course of cultural development in this hemisphere was negligible. Native America constituted a separate cultural unit, comparable to that of the Old World.

The development of civilizations

      The archaeological record for the central Andes shows a step-by-step development of cultural and social forms from a preagricultural, hunting and gathering baseline some 10,000 years ago to the Inca empire in the 15th century AD. The record does not show any significant cultural influence on this development from transpacific contacts.

      The evidence on early hunting and gathering peoples in Peru is still sparse. It is not yet possible to reconstruct social patterns, since most of the remains consist only of shellfish middens and small, widely scattered campsites along the coast. It was a period of thousands of years' duration, however, toward the end of which some knowledge of plant domestication reached the Peruvian coast.

      The next major era is set off by incipient agriculture and also is characterized by the remains of small, hamlet-type communities along the Pacific Ocean near river mouths, where the alluvial soil was able to support crops. Technology remained simple, irrigation was not practiced, and population remained small.

      After the passage of 1,000 years or so, marked developments appear in the archaeological record. These include many new crops, irrigation ditches that extended the arable area and controlled the supply of water, more and larger communities that attest to a growing population, and important temple mounds that formed the symbolic centres of theocratic government controlled by a priestly class. The formative era saw the development of the basic technologies and life-styles that were to become elaborated into even more complex cultural forms and state institutions. The emergence of city-states and empires in the central Andes is the result of local cultural-ecological adjustments of this sort, based on an irrigation agriculture that supported growing populations and necessitated controls in the hands of priests and nobles, with a warrior class subservient to the state.

      About 500 BC strong regional styles began to appear in the manufacture of utilitarian and luxury goods and public buildings. An abundance of large temple mounds, more extensive and intricate irrigation networks, cities, roads, bridges, reservoirs, and other works calling for mass labour and tight controls characterize this cultural florescence. It was capped by the crystallization of class-organized societies, supported by masses of farm families and conscript labour, defended by well-organized and well-disciplined troops, catered to by a large number of master craftsmen, and ruled and regulated by a class of priests and nobles.

      During the last phase of the prehistoric era in the central Andes, which began about AD 1000, regional states came to be absorbed into vast empires, the best known of which was the Inca empire. The Inca began their expansion in 1438 and completed it in 1532, by which time the Spaniards landed on the northern coast of Peru at what is now the seaport of Paita. The Inca spread their imperial bureaucracy from Ecuador to central Chile and implanted their religious beliefs and practices, as well as much of their culture and the Quechua language, in the process of empire building. Their achievement was cut short by the Spanish conquest under Pizarro, at a time when the Inca empire seemed on the verge of civil war.

Traditional ways of life

Hunters and gatherers

 Peoples who led a nomadic hunting and gathering life inhabited the agriculturally marginal areas of South America and were peripheral to the centres of great cultural development. All of Argentina and the archipelagic zone of southern Chile were the habitat of such hunting and gathering peoples as the Chono, Alacaluf, and Yámana of Chile, the Ona of the island of Tierra del Fuego, and the Tehuelche, Puelche (Guennakin), Charrúa, and Querandí of mainland Argentina. The Gran Chaco region supported the Guaycuruan-speaking (Guaycuruan languages) Indians, the Abipón, Wichí, Vilela, and others, all migratory peoples who roamed the grassy plains of their small territories in search of rhea (the South American ostrich), guanaco, peccary, and jaguar. In the tropical rainforests of Brazil and neighbouring countries, societies that are isolated from daily interaction with the ideas and technologies of other world cultures have remained at a hunting and gathering subsistence level. Many such peoples were destroyed by contact with Europeans, through warfare, enslavement, and disease. Others, such as the Guaraní of Paraguay, made prolonged adjustments to European colonization and gradually mixed with the conquerors biologically and culturally.

      In the tropical forests were the Jívaro, Yaruro, Makú, and many other small societies eking out a livelihood mainly by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants. They kept a wary eye on their more powerful neighbours, the village agriculturalists, who coursed the main rivers and their tributaries in canoes, searching for food and sometimes human heads.

      The hunting and gathering peoples of aboriginal South America were organized into small social units made up of a single kin (kinship) group or of several loosely linked groups of relatives. Members of these societies were differentiated almost entirely on the basis of their sex and age rather than on status characteristics of an economic, military, political, or religious nature, as in more complexly organized social systems. Behaviour was sanctioned by tribal customs that involved kinship rights and obligations and constituted the basis of morality. These peoples had very similar rites throughout the South American continent and similar beliefs in cures and magic. Their technology and material culture, though not homogeneous from one society to another, was always rudimentary and generally lacked agriculture, well-developed building arts, and manufacturing processes.

      These hunters and gatherers usually inhabited marginal areas and exploited the limited natural resources to which they had access with elementary techniques. The exigencies of their way of life produced social units that were of necessity small, widely scattered, and simply organized.

Tropical-forest farming villages

      The agricultural villagers of the tropical forests had more developed exploitative techniques than the hunters and gatherers. Farming, food storage, and canoe transportation along rivers made for greater economic sufficiency and the ability to live in larger, more stable units. The forest-dwelling agriculturalists included the bulk of the Arawakan (Arawak)-, Cariban-, and Tupian-speaking peoples, such as the coastal Arawak proper and those of the Greater Antilles, the Achagua, Guahibo (Guahibo and Chiricoa), Palicur, and others; the Carib of the Guianas, such as the Barama River Carib, the Taulipang, and the Makushí (Macushí); the Tupians of the coast of Brazil, such as the Tupinambá; and inland groups among whom were the Mundurukú, Kawaíb (Parintintín), and their neighbours.

      Tropical-forest farming villagers, like hunters and gatherers, had sociocultural units consisting mainly of kin-based populations which were structured along lines of age and sex, without much in the way of economic, political, or religious grounds for social-status differentiation. Social controls were largely based on kinship rights and obligations of a moral nature, except in cases of certain military activities that were often under the temporary leadership of special chiefs (chief). Their richer technology and production of agricultural surpluses enabled villages to remain in the same place for many years, even though the depletion of soils necessitated the periodic reestablishment of new villages and the abandonment of older ones. Populations were larger and, of course, more concentrated. They were supported by a more adequate and dependable food supply, which included maize (corn), beans, squash, manioc, and tropical vegetables and fruits, as well as the riches of the rivers on which these peoples lived, such as turtles and the thousands of turtle eggs harvested annually and abundant fish and game. Hunting was important but subsidiary to agriculture. The rites (rite of passage) of these peoples—those surrounding birth, puberty, initiation into men's secret societies, marriage, and death, and the shamanistic practices involved in the supernatural curing of illness—tended to be similar throughout the tropical-forest region. Many of the rites were similar to those of the simpler hunting and gathering peoples.

Chiefdoms of the northern Andes (Andes Mountains) and the circum-Caribbean

      In this extensive and geographically varied region there existed many peoples who lay in the main path of the Spanish conquistadores and who were overwhelmed by them. The Spaniards were attracted by the abundance of gold ornaments and religious objects displayed in the native villages and were excessive in their search for even greater wealth.

      Among the chiefdoms were the Chibcha of highland Ecuador (the greatest chiefdom of them all) and the Coconuco, Pijao, Páez, Puruhá, Cana, and Palta of the northern Andes; the Jirajara and their neighbours, the Caquetío, Palenque, and Cumanagoto of northern Venezuela; and the Arawakan Taino of the Greater Antilles.

      Though having a technology similar to that of the tropical-forest farming villages and sharing a basic material culture with them, the chiefdoms of the northern Andes and the circum-Caribbean areas had a still more productive food complex, which supported much denser populations in quite large and permanent villages and towns. Natural resources were more varied and abundant in the regions that they inhabited, and farming was more productive.

      Villages were composed of multikinship groups organized on the basis of social strata which had attributed statuses, rather than merely on the basis of kinship considerations such as age, sex, and the moral obligations these incurred. Some social ranks were hereditary, such as chieftainship and ritual office. Warfare was of great importance in many societies of this type. Participation in military activities insured upward social mobility for individuals and families and the eventual achievement of membership in the topmost strata of the village. War captives were taken as drudge servants (slavery) and for sacrificial (human sacrifice) victims in religious rites. There was a foreshadowing of state institutions in the offices of priest, chief, military leaders, and nobles and captive slaves. In the chiefdoms, however, these institutions had not crystallized as they eventually did in the Andean kingdoms and empires. A major diagnostic feature of chiefdoms was their priest-temple-idol complex, a ritual organization of a different order of complexity from the supernatural beliefs and practices of the tropical-forest villagers and the hunters and gatherers.

Central Andean irrigation civilizations

      First occupied by small groups of hunting and gathering peoples who filtered southward along the Pacific coast and through the highland basins thousands of years ago, the central Andes eventually became the seat of the highest form of civilization developed in native South America. The earliest archaeological evidence of agriculture in this region has a date of 2300 BC, which is probably much later than the first domestication of plants. With the spread of agricultural knowledge throughout the central Andes, populations increased in size and attained more settled and larger communities. A thousand years before the Spanish conquest, the central Andes had the most developed agricultural and irrigational system in all of South America, the densest population south of Mexico, and the most efficient system of overland transportation in the Western Hemisphere. The combination of these features permitted the growth of true urban centres, an intricate class system, a strongly entrenched bureaucracy, and the extension of social controls over vast areas by means of political, religious, and military institutions.

      Two of the most famous early cultures in the central Andes were the Tiwanaku and the Chimú. Tiwanaku spread its culture from what is today highland Bolivia northward to the vicinity of Lima and beyond. In the north of Peru arose the Chimú kingdom, which expanded southward and overlapped the northern extension of the Tiwanaku culture, as the latter's influence had begun to decline. Following these two great cultural spreads and military conquests came the expansion of the Inca state. When Inca civilization reached imperial proportions, it controlled the area occupied today by Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and the northern half of Chile. The expansion of the Inca empire preceded the Spanish conquest by slightly less than 100 years.

      All of these imperial states, as well as other smaller ones before them, shared a number of characteristics that set them apart from the chiefdoms and other peoples. They were based on state-controlled irrigation (irrigation and drainage) works, which made the production of huge agricultural surpluses possible. These surplus crops were controlled by the emperor and apportioned among the state, the church, and the populace according to a standard formula. As a result of an abundant food supply and surpluses that could be stored against adverse times, population steadily increased. There developed a rigidly hereditary class (social class) system—with the agricultural masses at the bottom and the Inca royal family at the top, with ranks of nobles, chiefs, lesser administrators, artisans, and others in between. The state waged war for territorial conquest and taxed the defeated peoples. It imposed the Inca religion, with its emperor-god and hierarchy of deities, its shrines and temples attended by priests and sacred virgins, and its ceremonial calendar. The Inca were masters of bureaucratic (bureaucracy) regimentation who ruled the lives of the commoners through political controls enforced by state machinery and statute law rather than by customary sanctions. Inca institutions overshadowed and to some extent replaced the traditional behaviour patterns of the thousands of farming communities that made up the empire.

      Central Andean technology differed little from that of surrounding areas, except in metallurgical skills and in the building arts, but it was outstanding in the quality, variety, and excellence of its products, the most outstanding of which were produced for the state and the nobility by highly skilled artisans.

Evolution of contemporary cultures

The European conquest

      A full appreciation of the force and nature of the European conquest of South America must take into consideration postcontact population trends among the indigenous societies. Today, there are at least as many people of overwhelmingly Indian ancestry as there were just prior to the European conquest, but the vast majority of these, approximately 7,000,000, live in the central Andes and represent a resurgence after a marked population decline following the conquest. Elsewhere in South America, Indian populations declined rapidly after contact with Europeans and, for the most part, have not increased appreciably since. This loss of Indian populations is related directly to the intensity of European exploitation and the density of the native populations in question, two principal factors in adjustments during the colonial period.

      Population decline was heaviest along the South American coastlines and major rivers, where Indian concentrations were greatest. Along the coasts of Brazil, the Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador, where Europeans came in great force, the Indians were killed in large numbers, died in the course of enslavement, succumbed to new diseases, or fled into the hinterlands in depleted numbers. Conditions were similar along the great river systems, where native populations declined sharply in the first decades after contact with Europeans, their places being filled in the labour pools of colonial society by African slaves, who have made a great contribution to South America's mixed population.

      Indians who survived European intrusions are those small communities in the marginal, unattractive areas scarcely touched by soldiers and settlers. South of the tropical-forest area, in Argentina and Uruguay, where Indian populations were small and scattered, the coastal groups were again the first to succumb to conquest. In the Gran Chaco, resistance to Spanish settlement was fierce and temporarily successful, but, in time, these Indians were nearly wiped out by disease in mission centres and elsewhere, and the survivors were absorbed into the gaucho population that developed along with Argentine cattle raising. In Chile the Atacama and Diaguita Indians were rapidly suppressed and absorbed, as were the northern Araucanians (Araucanian) (Picunche). The southern Araucanians (Mapuche and Huilliche) held out against white subjugation and developed a military organization to defend their heartland until the latter decades of the 19th century. Of the southernmost groups—the Puelche, Tehuelche, Ona, Yámana, and Alacaluf—those that are not literally extinct are virtually extinct.

      In contrast to the rest of South America, the highland populations of the Andes are today larger than at the time of conquest. They have maintained great cultural stability, have survived epidemics, and have continued to live in small farming and pastoral communities established centuries ago. Their population is steadily and rapidly increasing, and there is great population pressure on arable land, which constitutes a national problem in Bolivia and Peru.

Effects of colonialism (colonialism, Western)

      The kinds of changes induced by European conquest varied according to the intensity of settlement and exploitation, the density and organization of Indian populations, and the ecological adjustments made by the conquerors. Three examples of these variables may serve to indicate general trends.

Peru

       Inca culture and society were deeply affected by the Spanish conquest settlement. Spanish patterns of bureaucratic government replaced those of the Inca Empire, land use and ownership changed radically, tribute and forced labour threatened the agricultural base of the old society, ancient deities succumbed to Roman Catholicism, and community and domestic life were geared to the demands of the new colonial regime.

      Inca agriculture underwent great change through the introduction of European crops demanded by Spanish overlords. Indians were parcelled out among the settlers as tribute producers, menial labourers, and house servants. The abuses of exploitation were so great that very quickly most of the land was alienated from the Indians, who became a large, landless, and rootless population available for conscript labour (forced labour) in service of the colony.

      The Spaniards imposed the Roman Catholic religion and tried to stamp out native beliefs and practices, a work of long duration that has not been wholly successful. Although the Inca state religion was totally suppressed with relative ease, an almost incalculable number of cults of lesser deities persisted in the villages.

      The Inca upper classes were most readily assimilated into Spanish colonial society, whereas the agricultural masses retained much of their traditional culture. The native nobles entered the administrative ranks of colonial society and adopted Spanish dress and other customs. Artisans, servants, and others in direct contact with the settlers also became rapidly acculturated to a colonial way of life. Where native communities remained outside the main force of the colonial economy and where communal land was retained, the traditional culture was preserved somewhat intact, with customs of land use, ownership, family organization, marriage practices, and some home industries surviving into the 20th century. Villages have economic links with the cities through the production of marketable crops and may now be considered as peasant communities in a national economy.

Chile

      The Spaniards conquered the northern half of Chile several years after their conquest of Peru. They had brought the Picunche under their control with relative ease by 1544 and used them to placer mine (placer mining) gold in the rivers, perform agricultural labour on settlers' farms, and build and provide services in colonial towns, cities, and military outposts.

      In response to the colonists' demands for more Indian labour, Spanish troops attempted to conquer the southern Araucanians, the Mapuche and Huilliche. These Indians rebelled against harsh treatment at the hands of the Spaniards and succeeded in burning all their outposts and settlements and driving them north again. The history of northern Chile, after that, is one of peaceful colonization and the assimilation of the Indian population into a colonial labour force. Mapuche-Huilliche territory, however, remained a frontier zone for centuries. The Mapuche and Huilliche were placed on reservations after they sued for peace in 1884.

Panama

      The Chocó Indians of the tropical forests of Darién region and nearby Colombia survived the Spanish intrusion because they had nothing of value to the Europeans and were bypassed. In turn, the Chocó were not especially warlike and avoided the dangers of contact.

      The Chocó retained many of their traditional values and ways of life into the 20th century. They emphasize magical curing, observe age-old marriage practices, and live in pole and thatch houses built on pilings along rivers, where they have small groves of plantains and also grow manioc, cacao, and other tropical crops in jungle clearings. Most Chocó have no knowledge of Spanish. They are by no means integrated into national life and prefer to live apart in the densely forested areas.

Louis C. Faron

Additional Reading

Prehistoric South America is covered in Jesse D. Jennings (ed.), Ancient South Americans (1983); and in M. Coe, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson, Atlas of Ancient America (1986). The question of how many people lived in the Americas when the Europeans arrived is addressed by William M. Denevan (ed.), The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, 2nd ed. (1992). Descriptions for the general reader of the major tribes in eastern and southwestern North America through Mexico to Andean South America may be found in Jamake Highwater, Native Land: Sagas of the Indian Americas (1986).Julian H. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, 7 vol. (1946–59), is a monumental compilation of articles specifically on South American ethnography, archaeology, physical anthropology, and languages. Julian H. Steward and Louis C. Faron, Native Peoples of South America (1959), is a synthesis and updating of the previous work, written in a consistent theoretical framework. Articles of varying length on individual tribes and on language groups may be found in James S. Olson, The Indians of Central and South America: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary (1991). Lawrence E. Sullivan, Icanchu's Drum: An Orientation to Meaning in South American Religions (1988), describes the wealth of religions, ceremonies, and ideas. Indigenous religions of both continents are explored in Åke Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians (1979); and Denise Lardner Carmody and John Tully Carmody, Native American Religions: An Introduction (1993), both covering North, Central, and South America; and in Gary H. Gossen and Miguel León-Portilla (eds.), South and Meso-American Native Spirituality: From the Cult of the Feathered Serpent to the Theology of Liberation (1993). Modern studies of South American communities are listed in Handbook of Latin American Studies (annual).Louis C. Faron Ed.

* * *