music and dance, Oceanic

Introduction

      the music and dance traditions of the indigenous people of Oceania, in particular of Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, New Zealand, and Australia. Music and dance in Polynesia and Micronesia are audible and visual extensions of poetry, whereas in Melanesia they are aimed more at spectacular display during times of life crises and as a part of secret-society rituals. The arts of music and dance are often intertwined in these cultures, and so they are presented together in this discussion.

The role of music and dance

Melanesia (Melanesian culture)

      The nature of Melanesian music and dance reflects the “Big Man” sociopolitical structure found in many parts of the region. The leader, or Big Man, in many Melanesian societies is often a self-made man; he becomes a leader by creating followers, succeeding because he possesses skills that command respect in his society, such as oratory talent, bravery, gardening prowess, and magical powers. He amasses goods and has great public giveaways, often in connection with the erection of a Big Man's dwelling or a men's house, the purchase of higher grades of rank in secret societies, the sponsorship of funeral or other religious ceremonies, or the installation and consecration of slit gongs (slit drum) (or slit drums (slit drum), percussion instruments made from hollowed-out logs or living tree trunks). These ceremonies occasion spectacular performances of music and dance as well as extraordinary displays of visual art. (See also art and architecture, Oceanic.)

      There are basically two kinds of dance in Melanesian ceremonies: dances of impersonation and dances of participation. In the first type, the dancer impersonates mythical or ancestral beings; the dancer-actor becomes someone else, and his attire is usually distinctly unhuman or supernatural—consisting often of huge masks and a full otherworldly costume. The dance movements are dictated by the two considerations that the impersonated beings are not human and that the dancer's attire makes movement difficult. Thus, the dancer's movements are restricted to legs and swaying bodies; the dancer's arms are often covered and frequently used to steady the costume and mask or to hold a drum that is used to accompany the dance. The movements do not interpret recited poetry; however, the accompanying sounds of musical instruments (musical instrument) may represent the voices of the supernatural beings.

      The second type of dance, that of participation, is often an extension of these dramatic ceremonies, as individuals who do not impersonate spirits often join in and dance with them, imitating the steps of the supernatural. In dances celebrating head-hunting, warfare, funeral rites (ritual), or fertility—in which the entire community sometimes participates—the same movements are used, often to the accompaniment of drumming and communal singing. The dances have a character of spontaneity and do not require long and arduous training. Their aim is not the simultaneous flawless execution of music and intricate movements but, rather, the creation of a mass rhythmic (rhythm) environment that might be characterized as a visual extension of rhythm. If words (vocal music) are associated, they are repetitious and seem not to tell a story; they may even be unintelligible. Although the specific structure of any single dance tradition in Melanesia is not yet known, it seems probable that the isolated units of movement would be primarily those of legs and body.

Polynesia

      The entirely different world of Polynesian music and dance stands in contrast. Polynesian dance is a visual extension of poetry that uses chant or heightened speech (plainsong) as a vehicle for the praise and honour of high-ranking chiefs (chief) or visitors. In Polynesia, power resides in chiefly office, and traditional oral texts tell of a chief's deeds and his descent from the gods. Genealogical rank is a distinctive feature of Polynesian societies, and music and dance pay allegiance to the rank-based sociopolitical structure, reflecting and validating the system of social distinctions and interpersonal relationships. In these societies, where power resides in the office and the regime is long and enduring, specialists compose poetry, add music and movement, and rehearse the performers for many months before a public ceremony. Movements are primarily those of hands and arms, and interpretation is that of a storyteller. The dancers do not become characters in a drama, and their stylized gestures do not correspond to words or ideas as they do in literature-inspired dance traditions of Indonesia and Southeast Asia. In Polynesia the dancer interprets a story orally, usually chanting or reciting metred poetry, and accompanies the words with actions. Although Polynesian dance texts are based on traditional stories, legends, or myths, a story is not “told” in the usual sense: traditional literature is referred to in a roundabout way, but the poetry is often the vehicle for saying something else, usually something relevant to the occasion at which it is presented. In addition, the order of the dances and the choice and placement of the dancers often supply further information about the social structure.

      The structure is known for at least three Polynesian dance traditions—Tongan, Tahitian, and Hawaiian—and the basic units of movement are primarily those of the arms. The only Polynesian dance tradition, however, that has been thoroughly studied is the Tongan (Tonga). Tongan dance is a visual extension of poetry and is closely intertwined with social organization. This sung poetry is a series of references to mythology, chiefly genealogies, famous scenic places, and contemporary events. The dances, which are performed either standing or sitting, interpret selected words of the text with hand and arm movements. The distinguishing characteristics of Tongan dance are the emphasis on the rotation of the lower arm and the flexion and extension of the wrist, as well as a quick sideward tilt of the head. The legs are used mainly to keep time with sideward stepping movements, and there is a marked absence of hip or torso movement. In pre-European times an important dance was the me'etu'upaki—a paddle dance performed by a large group of men in accompaniment to singing and a slit gong, which was often played by a high-ranking chief. This dance is still performed today. Group dances called me'elaufola were performed by men or women separately in accompaniment to singing, long bamboo stamping tubes, and percussion sticks. An evolved form of this dance, which flourishes today, the lakalaka, is performed by men and women together in accompaniment to sung poetry only. Solo and small group dances performed by one, four, or eight women often follow the large group dances and are more concerned with beautiful movements than with interpretation of poetry, although the same movements are used. In the 20th century, Polynesian dances can be classified into six genres, three of which have survived from pre-European times. The most acculturated dance type, the tau'olunga, is a combination of Tongan and Samoan movements accompanied by Western-style singing in conjunction with stringed instruments.

Micronesia (Micronesian culture)

      Music and dance in Micronesia, though certainly not the same as their Polynesian counterparts, are closely related to them. With the exception of Truk (Chuuk Islands) in the central Carolines (Caroline Islands), which displays traits of Melanesian and possibly Indonesian influence, the music structure of all parts of Micronesia is predominantly word-determined, as is that of Polynesia. Dance movements are mainly of hands and arms in accompaniment to poetry. In some islands, such as Yap (Yap Islands) (in the western Carolines) and Kiribati, there is a similar concern for rank in the placement of dancers, as well as the emphasis on rehearsed execution of songs and movements. But, although movements and types of dance have a superficial similarity to those of Polynesia, there are differences. In the Yap empire, for example, dancers from Ulithi, Woleai, and other islands performed and taught their choreography and texts to the Yapese as tribute, even though the dance texts were in languages unintelligible to the Yapese dancers; the function of movements was not to illustrate a story but to decorate it. Instead of acknowledging a chief's deed or genealogy, the Yapese dancers demonstrated the overlordship of Yap to the other islands. Even in Ifalik, where texts were in their own language, the movements did not interpret poetry but were apparently abstractly decorative. The same is true for the Kiribati. Thus, Polynesian dance could be characterized as illustration of poetry and Micronesian dance as decoration of poetry, while music in both areas serves as an elevated form of audible performance for poetry.

      In many parts of Micronesia, dance and music were associated with tattooing (tattoo), and with the decline of tattooing has come the virtual demise of these genres. The importance and dependence of the Micronesians on the sea is illustrated in poetry, music, and dance. In some areas, dances were performed on a platform of canoes (canoe); canoelike paddles were used in other dances, and, in some areas, performers wore head ornaments modeled after canoe parts.

      Again, the specific structure of any of the Micronesian dance traditions is not known, but apparently the basic units are primarily those of hands and arms and, if early descriptions are to be believed, the head.

Australia

      Music and dance of Australian Aborigines (Australian Aborigine) are important elements of sacred ceremonies that reenact mythological origins of the tribes and ensure the continued supply of foods through the propitiation of totemic plants and animals. Little is known about the internal structure or basic movements of the various Aboriginal dance traditions; however, in general terms there are often mimetic movements involving the entire body that are used to add a visual interpretative extension to the oral tradition of the tribe.

Musical instruments (musical instrument)

      Oceanic cultures have developed a large variety of sound-producing instruments (percussion instrument). Some are unique, such as the friction blocks of New Ireland: (New Ireland) three to four plaques carved out of a wooden block are rubbed with the hands to produce shrieking or hollow-resonant sounds, depending on size (8 to 80 inches for the entire instrument). Many instruments are used not in musical contexts but for other purposes—for example, to produce the voices of supernatural beings (in Melanesia), as lures (shark rattles), as toys, and for communication.

      Musical instruments proper generally lack provision for musical efficiency and easy handling. Flutes (flute) have no or few finger holes and no air ducts. Tuning devices with drums (drum) are rare, as are fixed resonators with chordophones (chordophone) (stringed instruments), which are represented only by simple types of musical bows (musical bow) and zithers (zither). In general, instrumental music is culturally less important than vocal music, and in some areas it is absent altogether. In some other areas, however, such as the Solomon Islands, there are highly developed pan-flute orchestras.

      Although some types of instruments—e.g., conch trumpets and slit drums (slit drum)—can be found in many parts of Oceania (excepting Australia), others occur only locally or are distinguishing features of certain musical areas. Open, hourglass-shaped drums with one membrane are typical of New Guinea and Melanesia, while Polynesians use drums of cylindrical shape that are technically kettledrums (kettledrum). Flutes of various types are usually blown with the mouth in Melanesia, with the nose in Polynesia (nose flutes), and both ways in western Micronesia. In contrast to their simple technical structure, which is the more demanding on the skills of the player, some instruments display elaborate ornamentation related to their function as cult objects in Melanesia, or they may be highly carved and finished befitting their function of honouring gods and chiefs in Polynesia.

Regional styles and traditions

Melanesia

      Melanesia, including New Guinea, houses a multitude of regional musical styles, few of which have been thoroughly investigated. The diversity, which parallels the linguistic situation, is assumed to be a result both of migrations and of the relative isolation of ethnic groups due to geographic conditions. Intergroup contacts (acculturation), including European influences, mostly since the late 19th century, have had a clear influence on present styles.

      Generally speaking, Melanesian music tends to be less word-determined than Polynesian and Micronesian music. Melody, rhythm, and form appear to be shaped by intrinsically musical principles rather than by the structure and meaning of accompanying text. In fact, song texts in Melanesia often use archaic or foreign languages and are thus frequently unintelligible to all participants in a performance.

Melodic characteristics

      Musical scale and melodic movement have been primary criteria in the Western analysis of Melanesian music. The main types of melodic form are triadic, in which the melody moves exclusively or predominantly on the steps of a triad (three tones, each a third apart, as C-E-G); and pentatonic, which uses five steps within an octave, the melodic structure typically emphasizing seconds, fourths, and fifths. Other types include “narrow,” in which melodic movement is restricted to an ambit (range) of a third; and “tiled,” in which the melody consists of a sequence of short narrow phrases on different tonal levels, always in a descending order.

      Several attempts have been made to link these types of melodic form with specific cultures within Melanesia. In the mid-20th century the Dutch scholar Jaap Kunst (Kunst, Jaap) attributed the tiled type found in the interior of western New Guinea, the Torres Strait, and Australia to “a people who, without doubt, emigrated from Asia to Australia—where the majority of them finally settled—by way of New Guinea and Torres Strait.” Triadic melody style has been connected with speakers of non-Austronesian (Papuan) languages in New Guinea and elsewhere in Melanesia, while pentatonic structure is described as an element of Austronesian culture in Melanesia. But, whenever new data become available, previous hypotheses on the distribution of stylistic characteristics and their attribution to ethnic and cultural groupings usually have to be revised.

      Also, rarely is the music of an ethnic group found to be based on one single principle of melodic structure. In most cases a mixture of several principles is apparent, with one or the other prevailing.

Musical style and cultural context

      This mixture of musical structures holds true for the few New Guinea groups whose music has been studied in its cultural context: the Monumbo, the Kate, the Watut, and the Kaluli. A more detailed discussion of Kate music illustrates the stylistic heterogeneity of the Kate, who live in the hinterland of the Huon Peninsula of northeastern Papua New Guinea and speak a non-Austronesian (Papuan) language, while some of their neighbours on the coast and on adjacent islands speak Austronesian (Melanesian) languages. A Lutheran mission was established in that area in 1886.

      Before the mission terminated their non-Christian religious activities, the Kate shared with their neighbours, specifically the Melanesian-speaking Jabem, Bukawa, and Tami, a secret initiation cult that provided for an exchange of music and dances among participants. The mission introduced “Christian songs” with texts in Kate language and European church tunes; but missionaries also created “Christian” adaptations of traditional Kate melodies, which were more readily acceptable than Lutheran hymns.

      By about 1910 the Kate experienced a twofold cultural change resulting from the continuing contact with their Melanesian-speaking neighbours and from the impact of European colonial culture. But many aspects of their precolonial culture were then still functioning or in fresh memory. Music and dance activities were connected with childbirth, children's games, initiation, hunting, agriculture, ceremonial bartering of pigs, warfare, and death—the latter occasion being the only one to prohibit dancing. Consequently, initiation ceremonies, which usually extended over two years, had to be interrupted whenever a death occurred. In addition to music and dance in ceremonial contexts, there were songs for entertainment and expression of individual sentiments or experiences. Most of the common social dances and dance songs were adopted from the off-coast Siassi Islands, including texts that were unintelligible to the Kate.

      Structural characteristics of Kate music include triadic and pentatonic melody, both pure and in various degrees of blending; monophony (music having a single voice part); reverting and progressive strophes (strophe) (stanzas) of varying lengths; basically isorhythmic organization (i.e., using recurring rhythmic patterns); and a wide range of tempi. Analysis of stylistic characteristics in relation to context and historical data revealed that triadic melody and short progressive strophes are associated with the old, non-Austronesian (Papuan) stratum of Kate culture. Pentatonic melody and longer, reverting strophes seem to represent Melanesian influence, while a specific melody style characterized by the use of several pentatonic modes in succession (“modulating pentatony”), very wide ambit, and extended strophic form can be attributed to European culture contact.

      For the Kaluli, a group of rain-forest dwellers in the Southern Highlands province of Papua New Guinea, the American anthropologist Steven Feld has demonstrated the integration of diverse musical structures and natural sounds under one aesthetic ideology. The concept of “lift-up-over sounding,” which calls for a continuity of overlapping sound qualities and the avoidance of unison, governs all Kaluli musical expression, including recently acquired Christian church tunes and pan-New Guinea popular music, and thus projects Kaluli ethnic identity.

The Solomon Islands

      While the music of New Guinea and western Melanesia—particularly the Bismarck Archipelago—is predominantly vocal and monophonic, the music of the Solomon Islands is largely determined by use of highly developed panpipes (panpipe). These instruments have three to nine closed tubes, usually doubled by open tubes that sound the higher octave. New instruments are tuned by comparison with old “masters,” at the occasion of special ceremonies. Panpipes are used in orchestras alone and in conjunction with song. Vocal melodic style, which is characterized by triadic structure, wide melodic leaps, elaborate polyphony (several simultaneous voice parts), a specific timbre, or tone colour, and frequent change of register, is apparently an imitation of panpipe music. Types of polyphony include parallel melodic movement a third or a sixth apart, a practice most likely a result of overblowing the double panpipes, which may produce such parallels automatically.

      The ‘Are‘are people of Malaita, in the Solomon Islands, distinguish four types of panpipe ensemble and more than 20 musical types. The music of panpipe ensembles enjoys the highest prestige among the ‘Are‘are. They have an extensive system of thought about music that centres on ‘au, their word for bamboo, the material of which panpipes are made. Their system of musical concepts is so far not written, however; instead, it is passed on orally among specialists as a music theory that is in some respects homologous to European music theory.

      The triadic melody style of the Solomon Islanders seems to have spread into adjacent western Polynesia, where similar melodic types are found in Tuvalu and Futuna.

Micronesia

      From the Carolines in the west to Kiribati in the east, most traditional music is accompanied by dancing in standing or sitting posture. Group singing with rhythmic accompaniment by body and ground beats or concussion sticks is the prevailing type of musical performance. Purely instrumental music was performed on nose and mouth flutes in the Carolines and Marianas.

      Except in the central Carolines (Truk (Chuuk Islands)), where musical influences from Melanesia and eastern Indonesia are prominent, elements of chanting and metred declamation are the most conspicuous characteristics of musical structure, underlining the importance of poetry versus intrinsically musical principles. Vocal polyphony takes the forms of drone (sustained note heard against a melody) and parallel movement in a variety of intervals, with fourths most common.

      Micronesia is the least-known part of Oceania, as far as music and dance are concerned. On some of the atolls in Kiribati, consecrations of assembly halls, races of boat models, and meetings between local groups were or still are connected with performances of dances in which both women and men participated. Active participation and choreographic role are determined by individual proficiency as dancer and singer and by social rank. The ruoia is a sequence of standing dances in which movements are slow and mainly those of the arms and hands. In introductory and main dances, up to six leading dancers, male or female, pose as “gliding frigate birds” in front of the other dancers, who are lined up according to status in their patriclans (kinship groups). All dancers participate in chanting long poems that are rehearsed beforehand. Endings of dance songs are frequently shouted, and texts of the final dance in a sequence are recited in heightened speech throughout. There are also sitting dances, with arm and hand movements similar to those of the standing dances, and stick dances. Dance gestures are not illustrative of the song texts, which are not generally understood by performers or audience.

      The texts of traditional dance songs were “received” by composers from ancestor spirits (anti) in special rituals and probably in trance. Since the early 20th century, multipart singing of European church tunes has spread throughout the area. In consequence of a general culture change, social dances based on traditional movement patterns but accompanied by adaptations of Western music have become dominant.

Polynesia

      Since the second half of the 18th century, all parts of Polynesia have undergone a drastic cultural change that affected music and dance traditions severely. At present, adaptations of Western musical forms are predominant throughout the area. Both European church singing introduced by various missions and secular styles, ranging from the whalers' chanteys to modern international entertainment music, have participated in this process. Yet, remnants or elements of precontact Polynesian music have survived almost everywhere, either alongside of or within acculturated styles—because of a marked traditionalism, as in Hawaii and New Zealand, or because of a delayed acculturation process, as in many of the smaller and remoter islands.

Common traits

      The first useful descriptions of Polynesian music and dance come from Captain James Cook (Cook, James) and his companions on his exploration voyages (1768–80). Such reports of early travelers agree with 20th-century research in suggesting that, despite regional variance, the concepts and structural characteristics of music and dance are highly similar throughout Polynesia. Music serves as a vehicle for Polynesian poetry, as dance is its illustration. The central role of the word explains why Polynesian music is primarily vocal. The only noteworthy traditional instruments used independently from song are the nose flute and the musical bow. Accompaniment of song includes body percussion (e.g., slaps, claps), drums, and various idiophones (instruments the bodies of which vibrate to produce sound, such as rattles and slit drums).

      The most obvious stylistic characteristics of songs, common to all parts of Polynesia, result from word orientation. Most traditional songs can be classified as chant (plainsong), as recitation in heightened speech, or as a blending of both. In some areas—for example, Tuvalu—the same text may be performed in either style. Chanting uses a limited number of tone levels, mostly a third or a fourth apart, and numerous tone repetitions. Rhythmic organization varies from recitative bound to the accents of the words to strict repetition of rhythmic patterns. Vocal polyphony is widespread throughout Polynesia and indisputably indigenous. It was described by 18th-century explorers when foreign influence could hardly have affected the style of music. The most common form of polyphony, reported from almost all Polynesian groups with the marked exception of the Maori (of New Zealand) and Hawaiians, is drone produced by a second part that follows the melody rhythmically while repeating one—usually the basic—tone. All authorities agree that pure drone is a precontact element of Polynesian music. Other forms of polyphony occur locally and are believed to be a result of European influence; especially notable among these is imitational counterpoint (simultaneous, interwoven melodies using melodic imitation among the voice parts).

      Beyond these basic common traits, Polynesian peoples have developed musical forms and stylistic characteristics that are distinctive for individual groups of islands.

Hawaii

      What is generally known as “Hawaiian music” is the result of the acculturation that began in the early 19th century and that was greatly enhanced by the introduction (c. 1820) of Christian hymn tunes. The ukulele, so closely connected with this almost entirely Western style of singing, is a local version of the Portuguese bragha, a small guitar imported to Hawaii about 1879. The Hawaiian, or steel, guitar is a metal-stringed adaptation of the European instrument that is played by stopping the strings with a metal bar.

      Despite the predominance of Western—and, more recently, Asian—influences, some evolved forms of precontact Hawaiian music and dance have been preserved. Their stylistic characteristics fall well within the limits of what has been described as common Polynesian elements.

The Society Islands

      The inhabitants of the Society Islands, whose ritual and profane dances accompanied by polyphonic chanting, nose flute, and drum playing were admired by 18th-century explorers, experienced a particularly rapid and thorough Westernization of their music. Still, the modern Tahitian himene, contrapuntal compositions in as many as six voices, retain some indigenous elements of music structure derived from polyphonic chant. The term himene is derived from “hymn,” but the style includes both traditional Christian hymn texts and traditional Polynesian texts. The himene represent a highly developed form of a hybrid Polynesian-European music style.

The Maori

      The Maori of New Zealand have lost most of their instrumental music in the process of acculturation but have preserved many of their traditional chants and dances, which are classified according to function and contents of the text. Among the more prominent types are the lullabies (oriori), the laments (tangi), the incantations (karakia), the love songs (waiata aroha), the historical or genealogical recitations (patere), and the dance songs (haka). They are either recited in heightened speech or sung on narrow melodic lines undulating around a central tone, oro. rhythm is largely word-bound. Any polyphony is considered a fault of performance. One important aesthetic concept requires a performance to be uninterrupted even by breaks for breathing. Consequently, chants are usually performed by two or more singers who take breaths at different moments. As in all of Polynesia, the younger generations favour adaptations of Western music.

Western archipelagoes

      The musical traditions of western Polynesia are better known than those of any other part of Oceania. Descriptive monographs are available on the music of Samoa, Tonga, Bellona Island (a Polynesian outlier in the Solomon Islands), Tokelau, Wallis and Futuna, and Tuvalu. There is a considerable degree of stylistic and terminological coherence that characterizes western Polynesia as a distinct musical province within Polynesia.

      Before Western contact, music in Tuvalu was closely connected with social rank, religion, and magic. There are no detailed descriptions of dances; vocal (vocal music) styles included recitation in heightened speech and chant with drone polyphony (common to most of Polynesia) and triadic melodies resembling those of the Solomons. The Samoan emissaries of the London Missionary (mission) Society who converted the people of Tuvalu to Christianity (1861–76) destroyed the traditional social hierarchy and suppressed dances and songs either related to non-Christian beliefs or simply not fitting for their concepts of morality. They introduced pentatonic Christian songs characterized by two-part contrapuntal polyphony resulting from overlapping antiphony (contrasting groups of singers). This “pentatonic antiphony” is believed by some authorities to have developed in Samoa under European influence. By 1900 it seems to have become the predominant musical style in Tuvalu for both religious and secular topics. From 1914 church hymns and school songs in four-part European harmony began to replace “pentatonic antiphony” as the favourite style. By 1960 four-part harmony was the almost exclusive style of church, school, and dance tunes. International “Hawaiian” music has gradually penetrated the islands as mass media and Western musical instruments such as guitars and ukuleles have become available. Remnants of the earlier traditions persist mainly with members of the older generations, although outside interest has stimulated a modest revival movement.

Dieter Christensen Adrienne L. Kaeppler Ed.

Additional Reading

A general introduction is found in William P. Malm, Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia, 2nd ed. (1977). Hans Fischer, Sound-Producing Instruments in Oceania: Construction and Playing Technique, Distribution and Function, rev. ed. (1986; originally published in German, 1958), provides a comprehensive study of the subject.Melanesian traditions are explored in Hugo Zemp, “Àreàre Classification of Musical Types and Instruments” and “Aspects of Àreàre Musical Theory,” two original studies of music, musical instruments, and concepts in a Solomon Islands culture, both in Ethnomusicology, 22:37–67 (January 1978) and 23:5–48 (January 1979), respectively; Jaap Kunst, Music in New Guinea, trans. from Dutch (1967), covering western New Guinea; and Steven Feld, Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression (1982), a penetrating study of the symbolic and emotional dimensions of music in a small-scale culture of Papua New Guinea.Polynesian traditions are discussed in Adrienne L. Kaeppler, Polynesian Dance: With a Selection for Contemporary Performances (1983), a description of dances and songs from several island areas; Johannes C. Andersen, Maori Music, with Its Polynesian Background (1934, reprinted 1978), covering Polynesia in general with an emphasis on New Zealand; E.G. Burrows, Native Music of the Tuamotus (1933, reprinted 1971), a study of Tuamotu chant in its cultural context, and Songs of Uvea and Futuna (1945, reprinted 1971), examining two small western Polynesian islands; Jane Mink Rossen, Songs of Bellona Island, 2 vol. (1987), a description of musical categories and styles of a Polynesian population in the Solomon Islands; E.S. Craighill Handy and Jane Lathrop Winne, Music in the Marquesas Islands (1925, reprinted 1971); Helen H. Roberts, Ancient Hawaiian Music (1926, reprinted 1971); and Jane Freeman Moulin, The Dance of Tahiti (1979), a detailed analysis.Micronesian dance is described in a short study, Mary Browning, Micronesian Heritage (1970).Dieter Christensen Adrienne L. Kaeppler

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