mountain ecosystem

▪ ecology

Introduction

      complex of living organisms in mountainous areas.

      Mountain lands provide a scattered but diverse array of habitats in which a large range of plants (plant) and animals (animal) can be found. At higher altitudes harsh environmental conditions generally prevail, and a treeless alpine vegetation, upon which the present account is focused, is supported. Lower slopes commonly are covered by montane forests. At even lower levels mountain lands grade into other types of landform and vegetation—e.g., tropical or temperate forest, savanna, scrubland, desert, or tundra.

 The largest and highest area of mountain lands occurs in the Himalaya (Himalayas)-Tibet region; the longest nearly continuous mountain range is that along the west coast of the Americas from Alaska in the north to Chile in the south. Other particularly significant areas of mountain lands include those in Europe (Alps, Pyrenees), Asia (Caucasus, Urals), New Guinea, New Zealand, and East Africa. The worldwide distribution of mountain lands is shown in Figure 1—>.

Origin

      Viewed against a geologic time frame, the processes of mountain uplift and erosion occur relatively quickly, and high mountain ranges therefore are somewhat transient features. Many mountains are isolated from other regions of similar environmental conditions, their summit regions resembling recently formed islands of cool climate settled amid large areas of different, warmer climates. Because of this isolation, mountaintops harbour a distinct biota of youthful assemblages of plants and animals adapted to cold temperatures. At lower elevations, however, some mountains are able to provide refuges for more ancient biota displaced by environmental changes. Also, mountainous vegetation usually has been affected less by human activities than the surrounding areas and so may harbour plants and animals that have been driven out by anthropogenic disturbances that have occurred elsewhere.

      During the glacial intervals of the past two million years—the Ice Ages of the Northern Hemisphere—habitats suitable to cold-adapted biota covered much larger areas than they do today, and considerable migration of cold-adapted plants and animals occurred. Arctic biota spread south across large areas beyond the greatly expanded ice sheets that covered much of northern North America, Europe, and Asia. When climatic conditions ameliorated, these organisms retreated both northward toward Arctic latitudes and uphill into areas of mountainous terrain. This history explains, for example, the close similarities between the fauna and flora of high mountains such as the European Alps and the Arctic far to their north.

      In the tropics, however, little opportunity for similar overland movement of cold-adapted biota was possible because vast forestland in the tropical lowlands formed a barrier to migration. The organisms therefore have been isolated more completely from those of other cold environments. Despite this situation, colonization of tropical high mountains has occurred. Birds (bird) are particularly mobile, and some of temperate affinity found their way to equatorial peaks; for example, in the mountains of New Guinea are found pipits and thrushes that have no near relatives in the adjacent tropical lowlands. Migrating birds may have been the vectors for the seeds of cold-adapted plants growing in the same places, which also lack tropical lowland relatives.

      Populations of mountain species are commonly both small—although fluctuating—and isolated and often have evolved over a relatively short period of time. It is therefore not unusual to encounter related but distinct species on separate mountain peaks. This recent and rapid production of new species contributes significantly to the biodiversity and biological importance of mountain lands.

Environment

      Mountain environments have different climates from the surrounding lowlands, and hence the vegetation differs as well. The differences in climate result from two principal causes: altitude and relief. (For more information see climate: Climatic classification: World distribution of major climatic types: Highland climates (climate).) Altitude affects climate because atmospheric temperature drops with increasing altitude by about 0.5° to 0.6° C (0.9° to 1.1° F) per 100 metres (328 feet). The relief of mountains affects climate because they stand in the path of wind systems and force air (atmosphere) to rise over them. As the air rises it cools, leading to higher precipitation on windward mountain slopes (orographic precipitation); as it descends leeward slopes it becomes warmer and relative humidity falls, reducing the likelihood of precipitation and creating areas of drier climate (rain shadows).

      While these general principles apply to all mountains, particular mountain climates vary. For instance, mountains in desert regions receive little rain because the air is almost always too dry to permit precipitation under any conditions—e.g., the Ahaggar Mountains in southern Algeria in the middle of the Sahara. Latitude (latitude and longitude) also can affect mountain climates. On mountains in equatorial regions winter and summer are nonexistent, although temperatures at high altitude are low. Above about 3,500 metres frost may form any night of the year, but in the middle of every day temperatures warm substantially beneath the nearly vertical tropical sun, thus producing a local climate of “winter every night and spring every day.” For example, at an altitude of 4,760 metres in Peru, temperatures range from an average minimum of about −2° C (28° F) to average maximum values of 5° to 8° C (41° to 46° F) in every month of the year.

      By contrast, mountains at temperate latitudes have strongly marked seasons (season). Above the tree line during the summer season, temperatures high enough for plant growth occur for only about 100 days, but this period may be virtually frost-free even at night. During the long winter, however, temperatures may remain below freezing day and night. Snow accumulation and the phenomena this type of precipitation may cause, such as avalanching, are important ecological factors in temperate but not tropical mountain regions.

       microclimate variations are also important in mountain regions, with different aspects of steep slopes exhibiting contrasting conditions due to variations in precipitation and solar energy receipt. In temperate regions mountain slopes facing the Equator—southward in the Northern Hemisphere and northward in the Southern Hemisphere—are significantly warmer than opposite slopes. This can directly and indirectly influence the vegetation; the length of time snow remains on the ground into spring affects when vegetation will emerge, and this in turn affects the land's utility for grazing. Even in the tropics, aspect-related climate and vegetation contrasts occur, in spite of the midday vertical position of the sun. In New Guinea, for example, slopes facing east are warmer and drier and support certain plants at higher altitudes than slopes facing west, because the prevailing pattern of clear, sunny mornings and cloudy afternoons affects the amount of solar energy received by these contrasting aspects.

      Mountain soils (soil) are usually shallow at higher altitudes, partly because the soil has been scraped off by the ice caps that formed on most high mountains throughout the world during the last glacial interval that ended about 10,000 years ago. Soils are generally poor in nutrients important to plants, especially nitrogen. Rapid erosion of loose materials is also common and is exacerbated by frost heaving, steep slopes, and, in temperate regions, substantial runoff of meltwater in spring. Soil is virtually absent on rocky peaks and ridges. However, because of the cool, wet climate, many mountain areas accumulate peat, which creates local deep, wet, acidic soils. In volcanic regions tephra (erupted ash) may also contribute to soil depth and fertility.

      Considering the wide geographic extent of mountains and their resultant geologic and climatic variability, it is remarkable that they exhibit such a clear overall pattern in vegetation. The major structural feature of vegetation on mountains in all regions—except in very dry or very cold places—is tree line. (This characteristic is sometimes called timberline or forest limit, although strictly speaking the former term refers to the uppermost reaches that commercial-size timber trees attain and the latter term refers to a closed forest.) Above a critical level, which may vary between slopes on the same mountain and which is much higher on mountains at lower latitude, the climate becomes too harsh to permit tree growth; beyond that level grows alpine vegetation, dominated by herbaceous plants, such as grasses and forbs, or by low shrubs.

      In general, the altitude at which the tree line occurs is determined by that at which the mean temperature in the warmest month approximates 10° C (50° F), provided moisture is not a limiting factor. This is not precisely the case under all circumstances, however; for example, in some tropical regions that have a yearlong growing season, forests can grow in conditions slightly cooler than this. Nevertheless, the value holds true in most regions, especially in the temperate zones. It reflects a fundamental requirement for a sufficient level of photosynthesis to occur to support the growth of tree trunks.

      A relatively narrow belt of intermediate or mixed vegetation—the subalpine—usually exists between the forests below and the alpine vegetation above. In the subalpine of temperate mountains, stunted, usually infertile individuals of various tree species survive, despite blasts of windblown snow, frost damage, and desiccation. These deformed shrub-size trees are called krummholz.

      Although the overall pattern in which forest gives way to alpine vegetation is common to mountains at all latitudes, the factors responsible for it are not the same in all places. In temperate-zone mountains, the brevity of the growing season is of paramount importance because tree shoot tissues that have had insufficient time to harden before growth ceases and winter conditions begin may die when frozen. Other factors that damage or kill shoots or entire trees in winter in this region at temperate latitudes include the abrasion of buds by windblown snow crystals, desiccation of shoots just above the snowpack where they are exposed to direct and snow-reflected solar radiation—especially late in winter as the sun angle rises—and infection of shoots beneath the snow by snow fungus. Freezing injury to roots may also occur if the insulating layer of snow is blown from the ground surface.

      In the tropics, these phenomena are not experienced. Snowfall is not restricted to a single winter season, and when it occurs it usually melts quickly. Snow therefore does not accumulate as a thick, continuous cover except at altitudes above the upper limit of most plant life. For example, in Venezuela the tree line lies below 4,000 metres, even where there has been no human disturbance, but virtually permanent snowpatches are not encountered until about 5,000 metres, where no vascular plants survive. Tree line in tropical regions is a consequence of low maximum temperatures throughout the year. However, the microclimate near the ground is warmer, allowing prostrate shrubs to grow at altitudes well above the highest trees.

Biota

Flora

      Mountains in north temperate regions, such as those of North America, Europe, and northern Asia, generally have conifer-dominated (conifer) forest on their lower slopes that gives way to alpine vegetation above. Typical conifers in these mountain regions are pines (pine) (Pinus), firs (fir) (Abies), spruces (spruce) (Picea), and the deciduous larches (larch) (Larix). Some areas have broad-leaved deciduous trees, and a variety of smaller plants are found beneath the trees, especially in moister spots. For example, mountains in the northern half of Japan that are higher than 1,400 to 1,500 metres have a subarctic coniferous forest belt, the dominant trees all being conifers in the genera Abies, Picea, and Larix. Heathers, poppies, and the large carrot relative Oplopanax are a few of the other plants that grow in these forests. In some areas moorland (moor) vegetation is found, dominated by the moss Sphagnum. Birch (Betula) fringes the forest at its upper limit and occupies areas with a history of burning. In the Pacific Northwest of North America Pinus, Picea, and Abies usually dominate tree line forests. Aspens (Populus tremuloides) occur in places, especially those areas with a history of disturbance. Alders (Alnus) are found in avalanche tracks, and willows (Salix) are important species in wet places. Lupins (Lupinus), pasqueflowers (Anemone), and a large variety of daisies and low shrubs in the heather family are examples of the rich flora of smaller plants that grow beneath the trees (tree) and in meadows near the tree line.

      Tree line forests in south temperate mountain regions also are dominated by only one or very few different types of tree at any site; the trees involved are usually broad-leaved rather than coniferous. For instance, most Australian mountains have tree line forests dominated by Eucalyptus, although a long history of widespread burning may be responsible to some extent for the prominence of this fire-tolerant tree. In New Zealand, Argentina, and Chile the tree line commonly consists of Nothofagus species.

      In the tropics, by contrast, species-diverse forests that can be described as stunted evergreen rainforests typically grow as far as the uppermost limits of tree growth. This is the case in New Guinea, Southeast Asia, and East Africa; however, in parts of the tropical Andes, single species of Polylepis (of the rose family) often grow at altitudes above all other trees, especially on screes (rock debris that has accumulated at the base of a cliff).

      Above the tree line, alpine vegetation comprises a variety of different subtypes including grasslands, mires, low heathlands, and crevice-occupying vegetation. For example, treeless alpine vegetation is found on mountains above 2,500 metres in central Japan, grading down to 1,400 metres in northern Hokkaido. Japanese stone pine (Pinus pumila), heathers (heather), and grasses (grass) are particularly prominent. Like most other plants in this alpine vegetation, these plants have near relatives in the alpine areas of other mountainous, north temperate regions. The prostrate shrubs of the stone pine form dense, low thickets about one metre tall on ridges; they are mixed with deciduous shrubs of alder and service tree (Sorbus) in moister places. Other alpine communities occupy wet sites, where tall grassy meadows or bog communities often boast abundant tiny primroses (Primula nipponica). Stunted dwarf shrubs, especially members of the heather family and their relatives Arcterica, Vaccinium, Diapensia, and Empetrum occur where winter snow is blown from exposed surfaces. Conversely, in places where snow accumulates as deep drifts in sheltered spots and where it remains until late spring or summer, snowbed communities occur that are dominated by the heather Phyllodoce or by sedges (species of Carex), with many other small plants also present. Alpine deserts are also widespread in the high mountains of Japan, in places with marked soil instability associated with the effects of recent volcanic activity. While the plants surviving in such places are varied, some, like the violet Viola crassa, are typical of these harsh habitats.

      Remarkably, the flora in the diverse array of alpine vegetation subtypes, such as in the above example, typically consists of a similar number of different plant species—about 200—in many regions both temperate and tropical. Furthermore, despite wide ecological and geographic contrasts, many of the same types of plant are found in most alpine regions. They are usually represented by different though related species in each region and on each mountain within regions. Gentians (Gentiana), plantains (Plantago), buttercups (Ranunculus), and members of the heather, grass, and sedge families are widespread examples.

      However, some regional peculiarities exist both in alpine flora and in vegetation structure. One striking example concerns the large stem rosette plants found on several high tropical, but not temperate, mountains. These are giant herbs that reach three metres in height or beyond; they have persistent dead leaf bases that insulate the water-containing tissues of the stem from freezing conditions that can occur virtually every night in their very high (up to 4,300 metres), dry environments. Similar but unrelated stem rosette plants are found in the northern Andes (Espeletia and Puya) and on mountains in East Africa (eastern Africa) (Dendrosenecio and Lobelia), with other examples in Hawaii, Java, and the Himalayas. This emergence of the same characteristic among different species that are under the same environmental pressures on different continents is an example of convergent evolution.

 A vegetation profile of a typical tropical mountain land is shown in Figure 2—>.

Fauna

      Mountain fauna is less distinctive than the flora of the same places and usually reflects the regional fauna. For example, the large mammals (mammal) of North American mountain lands include deer, bears, wolves, and several large cats, all of which inhabit, or did before human invasion, the surrounding areas beyond the mountains. Some birds are tied to mountain habitats, such as the condors of the high ranges of California and the Andes. On certain mountains, flightless insects such as grasshoppers (grasshopper) are a feature of interest, a phenomenon that is particularly pronounced on East African peaks such as Kilimanjaro.

      As a result of their range of diverse topographic and climatic environments, and because evolution of cold-adapted biota has often proceeded independently on separate mountains in the same area, mountain regions are often noted as being centres of high biodiversity. The Caucasus Mountains in Asia provide one well-known example, while, in the tropics, the mountains of New Guinea contribute greatly to an enormous diversity of organisms, including some 20,000 plant species that represent 10 percent of the world's flora.

Population and community development and structure

      Population and community processes in temperate mountain regions, as in the rather similar Arctic environments, are influenced by the highly seasonal climate. As the winter snowpack melts, plants undergo a surge of growth and flowering, particularly in the alpine zone where the entire growing season is completed within about three months. Substantial food reserves in subterranean organs are used to generate mature, fertile shoots very rapidly, with growth in some cases beginning under the snow before melt is complete. Because almost the entire alpine flora blooms within the same period of only a few weeks and because alpine plants tend to have relatively large flowers, the floral display to be seen in temperate mountains in summer is often spectacular. In tropical mountains there is no such period of spectacular development that alternates with a longer season of enforced dormancy, and plants grow throughout the year unless their development is stopped by the onset of a dry season.

      Animal activity similarly varies seasonally between regions. In temperate mountains there is a long period during which most birds (bird) and larger mammals migrate to lower altitudes. Some remaining mammals, such as the gophers of North American mountains, take advantage of the insulated environment beneath the snow where they make burrows and feed on subterranean plant organs.

      In tropical mountains seasonal changes are much less pronounced, and this is reflected in animal reproduction. For example, birds on high mountains in New Guinea may breed throughout the year; however, because there is no seasonal flush of plant and insect growth creating a temporarily abundant source of food, they lay few eggs. Clutches of only one or two are normal there, by contrast with the five to eight eggs typically laid by many temperate mountain birds during their brief breeding season.

Biological productivity

      As stressful habitats for plants, mountain lands are not very productive environments. The biomass (dry weight of organic matter in an area) of the alpine vegetation on high temperate mountains, however, may be greater than it first appears because more than 10 times the amount of visible, aboveground biomass is present below the ground in the form of roots, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs. By contrast, plants of the tropical alpine flora do not need to store food below ground, and less than half of the total biomass is located there. (For a full discussion of productivity, see biosphere: The organism and the environment: Resources of the biosphere (biosphere).)

      Agricultural exploitation of mountain lands, therefore, is not very productive and generally is not intensive, being mainly confined to light or seasonal grazing by cattle, goats, and sheep. Where it occurs at moderate intensity, grazing can be very destructive to alpine vegetation, which cannot easily cope with disturbance in its already environmentally stressful state. Similarly, the physical disturbance associated with other human uses of high mountains, such as skiing and other forms of recreation, can be permanently damaging. Another concern is that atmospheric pollutants tend to become concentrated in snowfall. In temperate regions a pulse of polluting substances enters the alpine system with the annual snowmelt, bringing possibly detrimental consequences in this low-nutrient environment.

Jeremy M.B. Smith

Additional Reading

Larry W. Price, Mountains & Man: A Study of Process and Environment (1981), provides a broad treatment of the mountain lands of the world. W. Tranquillini, Physiological Ecology of the Alpine Timberline: Tree Existence at High Altitudes with Special Reference to the European Alps (1979), details the Alpine tree line ecology using international examples, with particular reference to temperate-zone mountains. François Vuilleumier and Maximina Monasterio (eds.), High Altitude Tropical Biogeography (1986), discusses equatorial high mountain flora and fauna.Jeremy M.B. Smith

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