Jewish religious year

Introduction

      the cycle of Sabbaths and holidays that are commonly observed by the Jewish religious community—and officially in Israel by the Jewish secular community as well. The Sabbath and festivals (feast) are bound to the Jewish calendar, reoccur at fixed intervals, and are celebrated at home and in the synagogue according to ritual set forth in Jewish law and hallowed by Jewish custom. In this article dates are listed as BCE (Before the Common Era = BC) and CE (Common Era = AD). For a list of select important Jewish holidays, . (Jewish religious year)

The cycle of the religious year

      According to Jewish teaching, the Sabbath and festivals are, in the first instance, commemorative. The Sabbath, for example, commemorates the Creation, and Passover commemorates the Exodus from Egypt over 3,000 years ago. The past is not merely recalled; it is also relived through the Sabbath and festival observances. Creative physical activity ceases on the Sabbath as it did, according to Genesis, when the Creation was completed; Jews leave their homes and reside in booths during the Sukkot festival as did their biblical ancestors. Moreover, Sabbath and festival themes are considered to be perpetually significant, recurring and renewed in every generation. Thus the revelation of the Torah (the divine teaching or law) at Sinai, commemorated on Shavuot, is considered an ongoing process which recurs whenever a commitment is made to Torah study. In this article dates are listed as BCE (Before the Common Era = BC) and CE (Common Era = AD).

      An important aspect of Sabbath and festival observance is sanctification. The Sabbath and festivals sanctified the Jews more than the Jews sanctified the Sabbath and festivals. Mundane meals became sacred meals; joy and relaxation became sacred obligations (mitzwot). No less significant is the contribution of the Sabbath and festivals toward communal awareness. Thus, neither Sabbath nor festival can be properly observed in the synagogue according to the ancient tradition if fewer than 10 male Jews are present. Again, a Jew prays on Rosh Hashana and mourns on Tisha be-Av not only for his own fate but for the fate of all Jews. The sense of social cohesiveness fostered by the Sabbath and festival observances has stood the Jews well throughout their long, often tortuous history.

      The seven-day week, the notion of a weekly day of rest, and many Christian and Islāmic holiday observances owe their origins to the Jewish calendar, Sabbath, and festivals.

The Jewish calendar

Lunisolar structure

      The Jewish calendar is lunisolar—i.e., regulated by the positions of both the moon and the sun. It consists usually of 12 alternating lunar months of 29 and 30 days each (except for Ḥeshvan and Kislev, which sometimes have either 29 or 30 days), and totals 353, 354, or 355 days per year. The average lunar year (354 days) is adjusted to the solar year (365 ¹/₄ days) by the periodic introduction of leap years (leap year) in order to assure that the major festivals fall in their proper season. The leap year consists of an additional 30-day month called First Adar, which always precedes the month of (Second) Adar. A leap year consists of either 383, 384, or 385 days and occurs seven times during every 19-year period (the so-called Metonic cycle). Among the consequences of the lunisolar structure are these: (1) The number of days in a year may vary considerably, from 353 to 385 days. (2) The first day of a month can fall on any day of the week, that day varying from year to year. Consequently, the days of the week upon which an annual Jewish festival falls vary from year to year despite the festival's fixed position in the Jewish month.

Months and notable days

      The months of the Jewish religious year, their approximate equivalent in the Western Gregorian calendar, and their notable days, are as follows:

      TBTishri (September–October)TL

      TB TL1, 2 TRRosh Hashana (New Year)TL

      TB TL3 TRTzom Gedaliahu (Fast of Gedaliah)TL

      TB TL10 TRYom Kippur (Day of Atonement)TL

      TB TL15–21 TRSukkot (Tabernacles)TL

      TB TL22 TRShemini Atzeret (Eighth Day of the SolemnTL

      TB TLTLAssembly)TL

      TB TL23 TRSimḥat Torah (Rejoicing of the Law)TL

      TBḤeshvan, or Marḥeshvan (October–November)TL

      TBKislev (November–December) TL

      TB TL25 TRḤanukka (Feast of Dedication) beginsTL

      TBṬevet (December–January) TL

      TB TL2–3 TRḤanukka ends TL

      TB TL10 TRʾAsara be-Tevet (Fast of Tevet 10)TL

      TBShevaṭ (January–February) TL

      TB TL15 TRTu bi-Shevaṭ (15th of Shevaṭ: New Year for Trees)TL

      TBAdar (February–March)TL

      TB TL13 TRTaʾanit Esther (Fast of Esther)TL

      TB TL14, 15 TRPurim (Feast of Lots)TL

      TBNisan (March–April)TL

      TB TL15–22 TRPesaḥ (Passover)TL

      TBIyyar (April–May)TL

      TB TL18 TRLag ba-Omer (33rd Day of the Omer Counting)TL

      TBSivan (May–June)TL

      TB TL6, 7 TRShavuot (Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost)TL

      TBTammuz (June–July)TL

      TB TL17 TRShivaʾ ʾAsar be-Tammuz (Fast of Tammuz 17)TL

      TBAv (July–August)TL

      TB TL9 TRTisha be-Av (Fast of Av 9)TL

      TBElul (August–September)TLTE

      During leap year, the Adar holidays are postponed to Second Adar.

      Since 1948 many Jewish calendars list Iyyar 5—Israel Independence Day—among the Jewish holidays.

Origin and development

      The origin of the Jewish calendar can no longer be accurately traced. Some scholars suggest that a solar year prevailed in ancient Israel, but no convincing proofs have been offered, and it is more likely that a lunisolar calendar similar to that of ancient Babylonia prevailed in ancient Israel. In late Second Temple times (i.e., 1st century BCE to 70 CE), calendrical matters were regulated by the sanhedrin, or council of elders, at Jerusalem. The testimony of two witnesses who had observed the New Moon was ordinarily required to proclaim a new month. Leap years were proclaimed by a council of three or more rabbis with the approval of the nasi, or president, of the Sanhedrin. With the decline of the Sanhedrin, calendrical matters were decided by the Palestinian patriarchate (the official heads of the Jewish community under Roman rule). Jewish persecution under Constantius II (reigned 337–361) and advances in astronomical science led to the gradual replacement of observation by calculation. According to Hai ben Sherira (died 1038)—the head of a leading Talmudic academy in Babylonia—Hillel II, a Palestinian patriarch, introduced a fixed and continuous calendar in 359 CE. A summary of the regulations governing the present calendar is provided by Maimonides, the great medieval philosopher and legist, in his Code: Sanctification of the New Moon, chapters 6–10.

      Fragments of writings discovered in a geniza (depository for sacred writings withdrawn from circulation) have brought to light a calendrical dispute between Aaron ben Meir, a 10th-century Palestinian descendant of the patriarchal (Hillel) family, and the Babylonian Jewish authorities, including Saʿadia ben Joseph—an eminent 10th-century philosopher and gaon (head of a talmudic academy). Ben Meir's calculations provided that Passover in 922 be celebrated two days earlier than the date fixed by the normative calendar. After a bitter exchange of letters, the controversy subsided in favour of the Babylonian authorities, whose hegemony in calendrical matters was never again challenged.

      Calendars of various sectarian Jewish communities deviated considerably from the normative calendar described above. The Dead Sea (or Qumrān) community (made famous by the Dead Sea Scrolls discoveries) adopted the calendrical system of the noncanonical books of Jubilees (Jubilees, Book of) and Enoch, which was essentially a solar calendar. Elements of this same calendar reappear among the Mishawites, a sect founded in the 9th century.

      The Karaites (Karaism), a sect founded in the 8th century, refused, with some exceptions, to recognize the normative fixed calendar and reintroduced observation of the New Moon. Leap years were determined by observing the maturation of the barley crop in Palestine. Consequently, Karaites often celebrated the festivals on dates different from those fixed by the rabbis. Later, in medieval times, the Karaites adopted some of the normative calendrical practices, while rejecting others.

The Sabbath

      The Jewish Sabbath (from Hebrew shavat, “to rest”) is observed throughout the year on the seventh day of the week—Saturday. According to biblical tradition, it commemorates the original seventh day on which God rested after completing the creation.

      Scholars have not succeeded in tracing the origin of the seven-day week, nor can they account for the origin of the Sabbath. A seven-day week does not accord well with either a solar or lunar calendar. Some scholars, pointing to the Akkadian term shapattu, suggest a Babylonian origin for the seven-day week and the Sabbath. But shapattu, which refers to the day of the Full Moon and is nowhere described as a day of rest, has little in common with the Jewish Sabbath. It appears that the notion of the Sabbath as a holy day of rest, linking God to his people and recurring every seventh day, was unique to ancient Israel.

Importance

      The central significance of the Sabbath for Judaism is reflected in the traditional commentative and interpretative literature called Talmud and Midrash (e.g., “if you wish to destroy the Jewish people, abolish their Sabbath first”) and in numerous legends and adages from more recent literature (e.g., “more than Israel kept the Sabbath, the Sabbath kept Israel”). Some of the basic teachings of Judaism affirmed by the Sabbath are God's acts of creation, God's role in history, and God's covenant with Israel. Moreover, the Sabbath is the only Jewish holiday the observance of which is enjoined by the Ten Commandments. Jews are obligated to sanctify the Sabbath at home and in the synagogue by observing the Sabbath laws and engaging in worship and study. The leisure hours afforded by the ban against work on the Sabbath were put to good use by the rabbis, who used them to promote intellectual activity and spiritual regeneration among Jews. Other days of rest, such as the Christian Sunday and the Islāmic Friday, owe their origins to the Jewish Sabbath.

Observances

      The biblical ban against work on the Sabbath, while never clearly defined, includes such activities as baking and cooking, travelling, kindling fire, gathering wood, buying and selling, and bearing burdens from one domain into another. The Talmudic rabbis listed 39 major categories of prohibited work, including agricultural activity (e.g., plowing and reaping), work entailed in the manufacture of cloth (e.g., spinning and weaving), work entailed in preparing documents (e.g., writing), and other forms of constructive work.

      At home, the Sabbath begins Friday evening some 20 minutes before sunset, with the kindling of the Sabbath candles by the wife, or in her absence by the husband. In the synagogue, the Sabbath is ushered in at sunset with the recital of selected psalms and the Lekha Dodi, a 16th-century Kabbalistic (mystical) poem. The refrain of the latter goes: “Come, my beloved, to meet the bride,” the “bride” being the Sabbath. After the evening service, each Jewish household begins the first of three festive Sabbath meals by reciting the Qiddush (Kiddush) (“sanctification” of the Sabbath) over a cup of wine. This is followed by a ritual washing of the hands and the breaking of bread; two loaves of bread (commemorating the double portions of manna described in Exodus) being placed before the breaker of bread at each Sabbath meal. After the festive meal, the remainder of the evening is devoted to study or relaxation. The distinctive features of the Sabbath morning synagogue service include the public reading of the Torah, or Five Books of Moses (the portion read varies from week to week) and, generally, the sermon, both of which serve to educate the listeners. Following the service, the second Sabbath meal begins, again preceded by Qiddush (of lesser significance), and conforming for the most part to the first Sabbath meal. The afternoon synagogue service is followed by the third festive meal (without Qiddush). After the evening service, the Sabbath comes to a close with the Havdala (“Distinction”) ceremony, which consists of a benediction noting the distinction between Sabbath and weekday, usually recited over a cup of wine accompanied by a spice box and candle.

The Jewish holidays

      The major Jewish holidays are the Pilgrim Festivals: Pesaḥ (Passover), Shavuot (Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost), and Sukkot (Tabernacles); and the High Holidays (yamim noraʾim): Rosh Hashana (New Year) and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement). In common, their observance is required by the Torah and work is prohibited for the duration of the holiday (except on the intermediary days of the Pesaḥ and Sukkot festivals, when work the neglect of which entails monetary loss is permitted). Purim (Feast of Lots) and Ḥanukka (Feast of Dedication), while not mentioned in the Torah (and therefore of lesser solemnity), were instituted by Jewish authorities in the Persian and Greco-Roman periods. Lacking the work restrictions characteristic of the major festivals, they are sometimes regarded as minor festivals. In addition, there are the five fasts: ʿAsara be-Ṭevet (Fast of 10 Ṭevet), Shivaʿ ʿAsar be-Tammuz (Fast of Tammuz 17), Tisha be-Av (Fast of Av 9), Tzom Gedaliahu (Fast of Gedaliah), and Taʿanit Esther (Fast of Esther); and the lesser holidays—i.e., holidays the observances of which are few and not always clearly defined—such as Rosh Ḥodesh (First Day of the Month), Ṭu bi-Shevaṭ (New Year for Trees), and Lag ba-ʿOmer (33rd Day of Omer Counting). The fasts and the lesser holidays also lack the work restrictions characteristic of the major festivals. Some of the fasts and Rosh Ḥodesh are mentioned in Scripture, but most of the details concerning their proper observance, as well as those concerning the other lesser holidays, were provided by the Talmudic and medieval rabbis.

Pilgrim Festivals

      In Temple times, all males were required to appear at the Temple (Jerusalem, Temple of) three times annually and actively participate in the festal offerings and celebrations. These were the joyous pilgrim festivals of Pesaḥ, Shavuot, and Sukkot. Originally, they marked the major agricultural seasons in ancient Israel and commemorated Israel's early history; but after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, emphasis was almost exclusively placed on the commemorative aspect.

      In modern Israel, Pesaḥ, Shavuot, and Sukkot are celebrated for the number of days prescribed by Scripture, namely, seven days, one day, and eight days, respectively (with Shemini Atzeret added to Sukkot). Due to calendrical uncertainties which arose in Second Temple times (6th century BCE to 1st century CE), each festival is celebrated for an additional day in the Diaspora.

      Pesaḥ (Passover) commemorates the Exodus from Egypt and the servitude that preceded it. As such, it is the most significant of the commemorative holidays, for it celebrates the very inception of the Jewish people—i.e., the event which provided the basis for the covenant between God and Israel. The term pesaḥ refers originally to the paschal (Paschal lamb) (Passover) lamb sacrificed on the eve of the Exodus, the blood of which marked the Jewish homes to be spared from God's plague; its etymological significance, however, remains uncertain. The Hebrew root is usually rendered “passed over”—i.e., God passed over the homes of the Israelites when inflicting the last plague on the Egyptians—hence the term Passover. The festival is also called Ḥag, Matzot (“Festival of Unleavened Bread”), for unleavened bread is the only kind of bread consumed during Passover.

      Leaven (seʾor) and foods containing leaven (ḥametz) are neither to be owned nor consumed during Pesaḥ. Aside from meats, fresh fruits, and vegetables, it is customary to consume only those foods prepared under rabbinic supervision and labelled “ kosher for Passover,” warranting that they are completely free of contact with leaven. In many homes, special sets of crockery, cutlery, and cooking utensils are acquired for Passover use. On the evening preceding the 14th day of Nisan, the home is thoroughly searched for any trace of leaven (bediqat ḥametz). The following morning the remaining particles of leaven are destroyed by fire (biʿur ḥametz). From then until after Pesaḥ, no leaven is consumed. Many Jews sell their more valuable leaven products to non-Jews before Passover (mekhirat ḥametz), repurchasing the foodstuffs immediately after the holiday.

      The unleavened bread (matza (matzo)) consists entirely of flour and water, great care being taken to prevent any fermentation before baking. Hand-baked matza is flat, rounded, and perforated. Since the 19th century, many Jews have preferred the square-shaped, machine-made matza.

      Passover eve is ushered in at the synagogue service on the evening before Passover, after which each family partakes of the seder (“order of service); i.e., an elaborate festival meal in which every ritual is regulated by the rabbis. (In the Diaspora, the seder is also celebrated on the second evening of Passover.) The table is bedecked with an assortment of foods symbolizing the passage from slavery (e.g., bitter herbs) into freedom (e.g., wine). The Haggada (literally “narration”), a printed manual comprised of appropriate passages culled from Scripture, Talmud, and Midrash, accompanied by medieval hymns, serves as a guide for the ensuing ceremonies and is recited as the evening proceeds. The seder opens with the cup of sanctification (Qiddush), the first of four cups of wine drunk by the celebrants. An invitation is extended to the needy to join the seder ceremonies, after which the youngest son asks four prescribed questions expressing his surprise at the many departures from usual mealtime procedure. (“How different this night is from all other nights!”) The father then explains that the Jews were once slaves in Egypt, were then liberated by God, and now commemorate the servitude and freedom by means of the seder ceremonies. Special blessings are recited over the unleavened bread and the bitter herbs (maror), after which the main courses are served. The meal closes with a serving of matza recalling the paschal lamb, consumption of which concluded the meal in Temple times. The seder concludes with the joyous recital of hymns praising God's glorious acts in history and anticipating a messianic redemption to come.

      The Passover liturgy is considerably expanded and includes the daily recitation of Psalms 113–118 (Hallel, “praise”), public readings from the Torah, and an additional service (musaf). On the first day of Pesaḥ, a prayer for dew in the Holy Land is recited; on the last day, the memorial service for the departed (yizkor) is added.

      Originally an agricultural festival marking the wheat harvest, Shavuot commemorates the revelation of the Torah at Sinai. Shavuot (“weeks”) takes its name from the seven weeks of grain harvest separating Passover and Shavuot. The festival is also called Ḥag ha-Qazir (Harvest Festival) and Yom ha-Bikkurim (Day of First Fruits). Greek-speaking Jews called it pentēkostē, meaning “the fiftieth” day after the sheaf offering. In rabbinic literature, Shavuot is called atzeret (“cessation, conclusion”), perhaps because the cessation of work is one of its distinctive features, or possibly because it was viewed as concluding the Passover season. In liturgical texts it is described as the “season of the giving of our Torah.” The association of Shavuot with the revelation at Sinai, while not attested to in Scripture, is alluded to in the Pseudepigrapha (a collection of noncanonical writings). In rabbinic literature the association first appears in 2nd-century materials. The association, probably an ancient one, was derived in part from the book of Exodus, which dates the revelation at Sinai to the third month (counting from Nisan), i.e., Sivan.

      Scripture does not provide an absolute date for Shavuot. Instead, 50 days (or seven weeks) are reckoned from the day the sheaf offering (ʿOmer) of the harvest was brought to the Temple, the 50th day being Shavuot. According to the Talmudic rabbis, the sheaf offering was brought on the 16th of Nisan; hence Shavuot always fell on or about the 6th of Sivan. Jewish sectarians, such as the Sadducees, rejected the rabbinic tradition concerning the date of the sheaf ceremony, preferring a later date, and celebrated Shavuot accordingly.

      In Temple times, aside from the daily offerings, festival offerings, and first-fruit gifts, a special cereal offering consisting of two breads prepared from the new wheat crop was offered at the Temple. Since the destruction of the Second Temple, Shavuot observances have been dominated by its commemorative aspect. Many Jews spend the entire Shavuot night studying Torah, a custom first mentioned in the Zohar (Sefer ha-zohar) (“Book of Splendour”), a Kabbalistic work edited and published in the 13th–14th centuries. Some prefer to recite the tiqqun lel Shavuʿot (“Shavuot night service”), an anthology of passages from Scripture and the Oral Law ( Mishna) compiled in the late medieval period. An expanded liturgy includes Hallel, public readings from the Torah, yizkor (in many congregations), and musaf. The Book of Ruth is read at the synagogue service, possibly because of its harvest-season setting.

      Sukkot (Sukkoth) (“booths”), an ancient harvest festival that commemorates the booths the Israelites resided in after the Exodus, was the most prominent of the three pilgrim festivals in ancient Israel. Also called Ḥag ha-Asif (Festival of Ingathering), it has retained its joyous, festive character through the ages. It begins on Tishri 15 and is celebrated for seven days. The concluding eighth day (plus a ninth day in the Diaspora), Shemini Atzeret, is a separate holiday. In Temple times, each day of Sukkot had its own prescribed number of sacrificial offerings. Other observances, recorded in the Mishna tractate Sukka, include the daily recitation of Hallel, daily circumambulation of the Temple altar, a daily water libation ceremony, and the nightly bet ha-shoʾeva or bet ha-sheʾuvah (“place of water drawing”) festivities starting on the evening preceding the second day. The last mentioned featured torch dancing, flute playing, and other forms of musical and choral entertainment.

      Ideally, Jews are to reside in booths—walled structures covered with thatched roofs—for the duration of the festival; in practice, most observant Jews take their meals in the sukka (“booth”) but reside at home. A palm-tree branch (lulav), bound up together with myrtle (hadas) and willow (ʿarava) branches, is held together with a citron (etrog) and waved. Medieval exegetes provided ample (if not always persuasive) justification for the Bible's choice of these particular branches and fruit as symbols of rejoicing. The numerous regulations governing the sukka, lulav, and etrog comprise the major portion of the treatment of Sukkot in the codes of Jewish law. The daily Sukkot liturgy includes the recitation of Hallel, public readings from the Torah, the musaf service, and the circumambulation of the synagogue dais. On the last day of Sukkot, called Hoshana Rabba (Great Hoshana) after the first words of a prayer (hoshana, “save us”) recited then, seven such circumambulations take place. Kabbalistic (mystical) teaching has virtually transformed Hoshana Rabba into a solemn day of judgment.

      Hoshana Rabba is followed by Shemini Atzeret (Eighth Day of Solemn Assembly), which is celebrated on Tishri 22 (in the Diaspora also Tishri 23). None of the more distinctive Sukkot observances apply to Shemini Atzeret; but Hallel, public reading from the Torah, yizkor (in many congregations), musaf, and a prayer for rain in the Holy Land are included in its liturgy. Simḥat Torah (Simhath Torah) (Rejoicing of the Law) marks the annual completion of the cycle of public readings from the Torah. The festival originated shortly before the gaonic period (c. 600–1050 CE) in Babylon, where it was customary to conclude the public readings annually. In Palestine, where the public readings were concluded approximately every three years, Simḥat Torah was not celebrated annually until after the gaonic period. Israeli Jews celebrate Simḥat Torah and Shemini Atzeret on the same day; in the Diaspora, Simḥat Torah is celebrated on the second day of Shemini Atzeret. Its joyous celebrations bring the Sukkot season to an appropriate close.

Ten Days of Penitence (yamim noraʾim)

      The Ten Days of Penitence begin on Rosh Hashana and close with Yom Kippur. Already in Talmudic times they were viewed as forming an especially appropriate period of introspection and repentance. Penitential prayers (seliḥot) are recited prior to the daily morning service and, in general, during the period scrupulous observance of the Law is expected.

      According to Mishnaic teaching, the New Year festival ushers in the Days of Judgment for all of mankind. Despite its solemnity, the festive character of Rosh Hashana is in no way diminished. In Scripture it is called “a day when the horn is sounded”; in the liturgy “a day of remembrance.” In the land of Israel and in the Diaspora, Rosh Hashana is celebrated on the first two days of Tishri. Originally celebrated by all Jews on Tishri 1, calendrical uncertainty led to its being celebrated an additional day in the Diaspora and, depending upon the circumstances, one or two days in Palestine. After the calendar was fixed in 359, it was regularly celebrated in Palestine on Tishri 1 until the 12th century, when Provençal scholars introduced the two-day observance. Considerable speculation in recent literature concerning the origin of the Jewish New Year festival proves mostly that its early history can only be conjectured, not reconstructed.

      The most distinctive Rosh Hashana observance is the sounding of the ram's horn ( shofar) at the synagogue service. Medieval commentators suggest that the blasts acclaim God as Ruler of the universe, recall the divine revelation at Sinai, and are a call for spiritual reawakening and repentance. An expanded New Year liturgy stresses God's sovereignty, his concern for man, and his readiness to forgive those who repent. On the first day of Rosh Hashana (except when it falls on the Sabbath) it is customary for many to recite penitential prayers at a river, symbolically casting their sins into the river; this ceremony is called tashlikh (tashlik) (“thou wilt cast”). Other symbolic ceremonies, such as eating bread and apples dipped in honey, accompanied with prayers for a “sweet” and propitious year, are performed at the festive meals.

      The most solemn of the Jewish festivals, Yom Kippur is a day when sins are confessed and expiated (atonement) and man and God are reconciled. It is also the last of the Days of Judgment and the holiest day of the Jewish year. Celebrated on Tishri 10, it is marked by fasting, penitence, and prayer. Work, eating, drinking, washing, anointing one's body, sexual intercourse, and donning leather shoes are all forbidden.

      In Temple times, Yom Kippur provided the only occasion for the entry of the high priest into the Holy of Holies; details of the expiatory rites performed by the high priest and others are recorded in the Mishna and recounted in the liturgy. Present-day observances begin with a festive meal shortly before Yom Kippur eve. The Kol Nidre prayer (recited before the evening service) is a legal formula which absolves Jews from fulfilling solemn vows, thus safeguarding them from accidentally violating a vow's stipulations. The formula first appears in gaonic sources (derived from the Babylonian Talmudic academies, 6th–11th centuries) but may be older; the haunting melody that accompanies it is of medieval origin. Virtually the entire day is spent in prayer at the synagogue, the closing service (neʿila) concluding with the sounding of the ram's horn.

Minor festivals: Ḥanukka (Hanukkah) and Purim

      Ḥanukka and Purim are joyous festivals lacking the work restrictions characteristic of the major festivals.

      Ḥanukka commemorates the Maccabean (or Hasmonean) victories over the forces of the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes (reigned 175–164 BCE), and the rededication of the Temple Kislev 25, 164 BCE. Led by Mattathias and his son Judah Maccabee, the Maccabees were the first Jews who fought to defend their religious beliefs rather than their lives. Ḥanukka is celebrated for eight days beginning on Kislev 25. The Ḥanukka lamp or candelabrum (menora (menorah)), which recalls the Temple lampstand, is kindled each evening. One candle is lit the first evening; an additional candle is lit each subsequent evening until eight candles are lit on the last evening. According to the Talmud (Shabbat 21b), the ritually pure oil available at the rededication of the Temple was sufficient for only one day's light but miraculously lasted for eight days, hence the eight-day celebration of Ḥanukka. Evidence from the Apocrypha (writings excluded from the Jewish canon but included in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox canons) and rabbinic literature shows an association between Sukkot and Ḥanukka, possibly accounting for the latter's eight-day duration. Ḥanukka joy is expressed in festive meals, song, games, and gifts to children. The liturgy includes Hallel, public readings from the Torah, and the ʿal ha-nissim (“for the miracles”) prayer. The Scroll of Antiochus, an early medieval account of Ḥanukka, is read in some synagogues and homes.

      As recorded in the biblical Book of Esther, Purim commemorates the delivery of the Persian Jewish community from the plottings of Haman, Ahasuerus' (perhaps Xerxes, king of Persia, 486–465 BCE) prime minister. Mordecai and his cousin Esther, the King's Jewish wife, interceded on behalf of the Jewish community, rescinded the royal edict authorizing a pogrom against the Jews, and instituted the Purim festival. The historicity of the biblical account is questioned by many modern scholars. It is now generally conceded that the Book of Esther (Esther, Book of) was written in the Persian period (it contains Persian but not Greek words) and reflects Persian custom. Except for the Book of Esther, the earliest mention of the Purim festival is from the 2nd–1st centuries BCE. The name of the festival was derived from the Akkadian pûru, meaning “lot.”

      In most Jewish communities, Purim is celebrated on Adar 14 (some also celebrate it on the 15th, others only on the 15th). On the evening preceding Purim, men, women, and children gather in the synagogue to hear the Book of Esther read from a scroll (megilla). The reading is repeated Purim morning. A festive meal during the day is accompanied by much song, wine, and merriment. Masquerades, Purim plays, and other forms of parody are common. Friends exchange gifts of foodstuffs and also present gifts to the poor. Aside from the Esther readings, the liturgy includes public reading from the Torah and recital of the Purim version of the ʿal hanissim prayer.

The five fasts (fasting)

      The commemorative aspects of the fasts are bound up with their penitential aspects, all of which find expression in the liturgy. Thus the Jew not only relives the tragic history of his people with each fast, but is also afforded an opportunity to search within himself and focus on his own (and his people's) present and future. Penitential prayers (seliḥot) are recited on all fasts, and the Torah is read at the morning and afternoon services.

      ʿAsara be-Ṭevet (Fast of Ṭevet 10) commemorates the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia, in 588 BCE.

      Shivaʿ ʿAsar be-Tammuz (Fast of Tammuz (Tammuz, Fast of) 17) commemorates the first breach in the wall of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE. It initiates three weeks of semi-mourning that culminate with Tisha be-Av.

      Tisha be-Av (Fast of Av 9) commemorates the destruction of the First and Second Temples in 586 BCE and 70 CE. The most solemn of the five fasts, its self-denials are more rigorous than those prescribed for the others, and, like Yom Kippur, the fast begins at sunset. The book of Lamentations is read at the evening service, followed by poetic laments that are also recited Tisha be-Av morning.

      Tzom Gedaliahu (Fast of Gedaliah) commemorates the slaying of Gedaliah, governor of Judah after the destruction of the First Temple.

      Taʿanit Esther (Fast of Esther), which commemorates Esther's fast (cf. Esther 4:16), is first mentioned in gaonic literature.

The lesser holidays

      A major festival in the biblical period, Rosh Ḥodesh (New Moon) (First Day of the Month) gradually lost most of its festive character. Since Talmudic times, it has been customary to recite Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh. In the medieval period, aside from the liturgical practices carried over from the Talmudic period, it was celebrated with a festive meal. Always more diligently observed in Palestine than in the Diaspora, attempts to revive its full festive character are being made in modern Israel.

      First mentioned in the Mishna, where it marks the New Year for tithing purposes, Tu bi-Shevat (New Year for Trees (Ṭu bi-Shevaṭ)) assumed a festive character in the gaonic period, and later in the medieval period it became customary to eat assorted fruits on the holiday. In modern times it is associated with the planting of trees in Israel.

       Lag ba-ʿOmer (33rd Day of the ʿOmer Counting) is a joyous interlude in the otherwise somber period of ʿOmer counting (i.e., of the 49 days to Shavuot), which is traditionally observed as a time of semi-mourning. Usually celebrated as a school holiday with outings, it is first mentioned in medieval sources, which attribute its origin to the cessation of a plague that was decimating the students of Akiba, an influential rabbinic sage in the 2nd century, and to the anniversary of the death of another great rabbi, Simeon ben Yoḥai (died c. 170 CE).

The situation today

      Modern attitudes toward the Sabbath and festivals vary considerably. Acculturated Jews under the sway of Western secularism often are ignorant of, or choose to neglect, traditional observances. Attitudes of committed Jews in the Western world are patterned mostly along the lines of accepted Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform practice. Thus for example, driving to synagogue services on the Sabbath is unthinkable in Orthodox (Orthodox Judaism) circles, a matter of dispute among Conservative rabbis, and normative practice for Reform Jews. Among Orthodox Jews, who best preserve the traditional observances, contemporary discussion centres mostly on technological advances and their effect on Halakhic practice (the behaviour laid down in the written and oral Torah). Whether or not hearing aids may be worn on the Sabbath, and how crossing the international dateline affects observance of Sabbaths and festivals typify the sort of problem raised in Orthodox responsa (“replies” to questions on law and observance). Recent (and often heated) discussion in Conservative (Conservative Judaism) literature raises the possibility of abolishing the obligatory character of the additional festival days in the Diaspora (except for the second day of Rosh Hashana), thus unifying Jewish practice throughout the world. Reform (Reform Judaism) Jews, the most innovative of the three groups, observe neither the additional festival days (including the second day of Rosh Hashana) nor the fasts and have introduced numerous modifications in the liturgy as well as in the observances. More radical Reform congregations have experimented freely with sound and light effects and other novel forms of synagogue service.

      In Israel Sabbath is the national day of rest, and Jewish holidays are vacation periods. Municipal ordinances govern public observance of the Sabbath and festivals; their enactment and enforcement vary with the political influence of the local Orthodox Jewish community. Attempts to interpret festivals along nationalistic lines are common; some kibbutzim (communal farms) stress the agricultural significance of the festivals. Independence Day is a national holiday; the preceding day, Remembrance Day, commemorates Israel's war dead. Yom HaShoah (Holocaust Remembrance Day)—marking the systematic destruction of European Jewry between 1933 and 1945 and recalling the short-lived Ghetto uprisings—is commemorated officially on Nisan 27; many religious Israelis prefer to commemorate it on Ṭebet 10 (a fast day) now called Yom HaQaddish (day upon which the mourner's prayer is recited). Since the June 1967 war, Iyyar 28—Liberation of Jerusalem Day—is celebrated unofficially by many Israelis. Appropriate services are conducted on all the aforementioned holidays by most segments of Israel's religious community.

      In Israel and the Diaspora, Jewish theologians often stress the timelessness and contemporaneity of holiday observances. Nevertheless, “revised” Passover Haggadot (plural of Haggada) in which contemporary issues are accorded a central position, appear regularly.

      Scholarly research into the origin of the festivals, if unabated, has not advanced significantly in recent years, nor is it likely to unless new evidence is forthcoming. Attempts to trace the development and spread of festival observances have fared better, and studies such as A. Yaari's History of the Simḥat Torah Festival (in Hebrew) bode well for the future.

Important Jewish holidays

       Some important Jewish holidays Some important Jewish holidaysSelect important Jewish holidays are listed in the table.

Additional Reading

Roland De Vaux, Les Institutions de l'Ancien Testament, 2 vol. (1958–60; Eng. trans., Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions, 1961), summarizes the contemporary state of biblical scholarship regarding the origin and development of the Jewish calendar, sabbath, and festivals. Other relevant works include: Hayyim Schauss, The Jewish Festivals (1938; orig. pub. in Hebrew, 1933); Theodor H. Gaster, Festivals of the Jewish Year (1953), an anthropological, comparative, and often speculative approach to the sabbath and festivals; Shlomo Yosef Zevin, ha-Moʿadim ba-halakhah (1944), a modern classic (in Hebrew) treating talmudic and post-talmudic developments in the festival observances; and Menahem M. Kasher, Torah Shelemah, vol. 13 (1949), a comprehensive history of the Jewish calendar, also in Hebrew.Sid Z. Leiman

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