halogen element

▪ chemical element group

Introduction

 any of the five nonmetallic elements that constitute Group 17 (Group VIIa) of the periodic (periodic law) table. The halogen elements are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). They were given the name halogen from the Greek roots hal- (“salt”) and -gen (“to produce”), because they all produce sodium salts (salt) of similar properties, of which sodium chloride, table salt (or halite), is the best known.

      Because of their great reactivity, the free halogen elements are not found in nature. In combined form, fluorine is the most abundant of the halogens in Earth's (Earth) crust. The percentages of the halogens in the igneous rocks (igneous rock) of Earth's crust are 0.06 fluorine, 0.031 chlorine, 0.00016 bromine, and 0.00003 iodine. Astatine does not occur in nature because it consists of only short-lived radioactive isotopes (isotope).

      The halogen elements show great resemblances to one another in their general chemical behaviour and in the properties of their compounds with other elements. There is, however, a progressive change in properties from fluorine through chlorine, bromine, and iodine to astatine—the difference between two successive elements being most pronounced with fluorine and chlorine. Fluorine is the most reactive of the halogens and, in fact, of all elements, and it has certain other properties that set it apart from the other halogens.

      Chlorine is the best known of the halogen elements. The free element is widely used as a water-purification (water purification) agent, and it is employed in a number of chemical processes. Sodium chloride, of course, is one of the most familiar chemical compounds. Fluorides are known chiefly for their addition to public water supplies to prevent tooth decay, but organic fluorides are also used as refrigerants and lubricants. Iodine is most familiar as an antiseptic, and bromine is used chiefly to prepare bromine compounds that are used in flame retardants and as general pesticides (pesticide). In the past ethylene dibromide was extensively used as an additive in leaded gasoline.

Oxidation

 Probably the most important generalization that can be made about the halogen elements is that they are all oxidizing agents; i.e., they raise the oxidation state, or oxidation number, of other elements—a property that used to be equated with combination with oxygen but that is now interpreted in terms of transfer of electrons (electron) from one atom to another. In oxidizing another element, a halogen is itself reduced; i.e., the oxidation number 0 of the free element is reduced to −1. The halogens can combine with other elements to form compounds known as halides—namely, fluorides, chlorides, bromides, iodides, and astatides. Many of the halides may be considered to be salts (salt) of the respective hydrogen halides, which are colourless gases at room temperature and atmospheric pressure and (except for hydrogen fluoride) form strong acids (acid) in aqueous solution. Indeed, the general term salt is derived from rock salt, or table salt ( sodium chloride). The tendency of the halogen elements to form saltlike (i.e., highly ionic) compounds increases in the following order: astatine < iodine < bromine < chlorine < fluorine. Fluorides are usually more stable than the corresponding chlorides, bromides, or iodides. (Often astatine is omitted from general discussions of the halogens because less is known about it than about the other elements.)

      The oxidizing strength of the halogens increases in the same order—i.e., from astatine to fluorine. Therefore, of the halogen elements, elemental fluorine is prepared with the greatest difficulty and iodine with the least. As a class, the halogen elements are nonmetals, but astatine shows certain properties resembling those of the metals.

Electronic structure (electronic configuration)

      The chemical behaviour of the halogen elements can be discussed most conveniently in terms of their position in the periodic table (periodic law) of the elements. In the periodic table the halogens make up Group 17 (according to the numbering system adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), the group immediately preceding the noble gases. The halogen atoms carry seven valence electrons (valence electron) in their outermost electron shell. These seven outermost electrons (electron) are in two different kinds of orbitals (orbital), designated s (with two electrons) and p (with five). Potentially, a halogen atom could hold one more electron (in a p orbital), which would give the resulting halide ion the same arrangement (configuration) as that of the noble gas next to it in the periodic table. These electron configurations are exceptionally stable. This pronounced tendency of the halogens to acquire an additional electron renders them strong oxidizers.

      At room temperature and atmospheric pressure the halogen elements in their free states exist as diatomic molecules (molecule). In molecular fluorine (F₂) the atoms are held together by a bond (chemical bonding) made from the union of a p orbital from each atom, with such a bond being classed as a sigma bond. It should be mentioned that the dissociation energy for fluorine (the energy necessary to break the F−F bond) is over 30 percent smaller than that of chlorine but is similar to that of iodine (I₂). The weakness of the F−F single bond compared with chlorine can be ascribed to the small size of fluorine resulting in a decreased overlap of bonding orbitals and an increased repulsion of the nonbonding orbitals. In iodine, however, the p orbitals are more diffuse, which means the bond becomes weaker than in chlorine or bromine.

Relative reactivity

      The great reactivity of fluorine largely stems from the relatively low dissociation energy, a standard measure for bond energies, of the F−F bond (37.7 kilocalories per mole) and its ability to form stable strong bonds with essentially all the other elements.

      Fluorine (F₂) and chlorine (Cl₂) are gases at room temperature. Bromine (Br₂) is a reddish-brown liquid at room temperature and is—apart from mercury—the only element that is liquid at 20 °C (68 °F) and atmospheric pressure. Iodine (I₂) forms dark violet crystals under these conditions. In the solid state the halogen elements form molecular lattices, and the sublimation energies rise with increasing size of the molecules.

      The energy released in the formation of an ion from a free atom and an electron (brought up from an infinite distance) is called the electron affinity. The electron affinities for the halogen atoms all are high and show only slight differences from one another. It is known, however, that the oxidizing properties (ability to take up an electron by formation of a bond with another atom) increase from astatine to fluorine. This increase can be attributed to the low dissociation energy and the high electron affinity of fluorine combined with the strength of the resulting fluorine-hetero atom bond, resulting in a large heat of reaction. While the fluoride ion exhibits no reducing properties, the iodide ion is a mild reducing agent.

      Within a molecule in which atoms are held together by a shared electron pair (i.e., by a covalent (covalent bond) or nonionic bond), the tendency of an atom to attract the shared electrons may be expressed by an electronegativity value. According to American chemist Linus Pauling (Pauling, Linus), “Electronegativity is the power of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself.” Fluorine possesses the highest electronegativity of all elements, and there is a decrease in electronegativity within the family of the halogen elements from fluorine through chlorine, bromine, and iodine to astatine.

      Fluorine replaces any other halide ion from its compounds, as shown in the following equations. Chlorine, however, replaces only bromide, iodide, and astatide ions, and bromine only iodide and astatide ions. Free fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine are expected to replace astatide ions.

      The halogen elements all form compounds with hydrogen, the hydrogen halides. The energy of the hydrogen-halogen bond increases strongly from iodide to fluoride. Hydrogen fluoride in the crystalline state consists of infinite zigzag chains, as shown in the diagram,

      in which H represents the hydrogen atoms and (as before) F the fluorine atoms; the solid lines represent covalent bonds between the hydrogen and fluorine atoms within the molecules, and the dotted lines represent secondary bonds, called hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds between hydrogen fluoride molecules are considerably weaker (7 kilocalories per mole) than those within the molecules (135 kilocalories per mole), yet they are retained to a great extent in the liquid state. Similar hydrogen bonding exists in the other hydrogen halides, but it is considerably weaker. The large difference in hydrogen bonding between hydrogen fluoride and the other hydrogen halides accounts for the relatively high melting and boiling points of hydrogen fluoride as compared with those of hydrogen chloride and the other hydrogen halides. The hydrogen-halogen bond energies also decrease considerably in going from hydrogen fluoride to hydrogen iodide.

      The ionization energies (ionization energy) of the halogens are generally high, but they fall markedly with increasing atomic number. Fluorine is the only halogen that does not form compounds with positive oxidation states—i.e., states in which it has lost, rather than gained, electrons. This property is related to fluorine's having the highest electronegativity of all elements; i.e., it does not give up its electrons to other elements.

      All halogens possess the oxidation state 0 in their diatomic forms. Fluorine exhibits the oxidation states of −1 (F⁻ ion) and +1 (hypofluorous acid). The principal oxidation states of chlorine, bromine, and iodine are −1, +1, +3, +5, and +7. The oxyacids (oxyacid) are compounds in which halogen atoms are joined to oxygen atoms. The oxyacids are all powerful oxidizing agents, which can be reduced to the corresponding hydrogen halides—the oxidation numbers changing from positive to −1 in the process. The oxidizing strength of the oxyanions increases with increasing oxidation number of the halogen atom.

      All the molecules and ions in which halogen atoms possess four valence electron pairs are tetrahedral, as, for example, in the perchlorate ion (ClO₄)⁻. Those employing five valence electron pairs, such as chlorine trifluoride (ClF₃), have structures derived from a trigonal bipyramidal arrangement of electron pairs. However, since electron lone pairs (i.e., electron pairs that do not bond atoms together) are not located by techniques that analyze structure, only the positions of the fluorine atoms (attached to bonding pairs) are seen. Thus, ClF₃ has a T shape resulting from the placement of fluorine atoms at both axial and at one equatorial position of the trigonal bipyramid, with lone electron pairs in the remaining two equatorial positions. Molecules with six valence electron pairs have structures derived from octahedral geometry for the electron pairs; e.g., iodine pentafluoride (IF₅) has a square pyramidal structure resulting from the bonding of fluorine atoms by five of the six octahedral electron pairs. The unique binary compound iodine heptafluoride (IF₇) has a pentagonal bipyramidal arrangement of fluorine atoms.

      The highest observed coordination number (the number of atoms that a central atom has as its neighbours in a compound) of chlorine (oxidation state of +7) toward oxygen is 4 (i.e., the chlorine atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms), as found in the perchlorate ion, (ClO₄)⁻, whereas that of iodine (+7) is 6, as in the paraperiodate ion, (IO₆)⁵⁻. Toward fluorine, the maximum coordination numbers are higher. For example, chlorine can coordinate to six fluorine atoms, as in (ClF₆)⁺, and iodine (+7) to eight fluorine atoms, as in (IF₈)⁻.

       Properties of the halogen elementsThe principal properties of the halogen elements are noted in the table (Properties of the halogen elements).

Viktor Gutmann Karl Christe Stefan Schneider

Additional Reading

N.N. Greenwood and Alan Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd ed. (1997); and A.F. Holleman, Egon Wiberg, and Nils Wiberg, Inorganic Chemistry (2001), contain well-written chapters on all the halogens. A.P. Hagen and Jerry J. Zuckerman (ed.), The Formation of Bonds to Halogens, 2 vol. (1989–91), covers halogenation and bond formation.Viktor Gutmann Karl Christe Stefan Schneider

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