genetically modified organism

Introduction

 organism whose genome has been engineered in the laboratory in order to favour the expression of desired physiological traits or the production of desired biological products. In conventional livestock production, crop farming, and even pet breeding, it has long been the practice to breed select individuals of a species in order to produce offspring that have desirable traits. In genetic (genetics) modification, however, recombinant genetic technologies are employed to produce organisms whose genomes have been precisely altered at the molecular level, usually by the inclusion of genes (gene) from unrelated species of organisms that code for traits that would not be obtained easily through conventional selective breeding.

      GMOs are produced using scientific methods that include recombinant DNA technology and reproductive cloning. Reproductive cloning technology generates offspring that are genetically identical to the parent by the transfer of an entire donor nucleus into the enucleated cytoplasm of a host egg. The first animal produced using this cloning technique was a sheep named Dolly, born in 1996. Since then a number of other animals, including pigs (pig), horses (horse), and dogs (dog), have been generated using reproductive cloning technology. Recombinant DNA technology, on the other hand, involves the insertion of one or more individual genes from an organism of one species into the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of another. Whole-genome replacement, involving the transplantation of one bacterial (bacteria) genome into the “cell body,” or cytoplasm, of another microorganism, has been reported, although this technology is still limited to basic scientific applications.

      GMOs produced through genetic technologies have become a part of everyday life, entering into society through agriculture, medicine, research, and environmental management. However, while GMOs have benefited human society in many ways, some disadvantages exist; therefore, the production of GMOs remains a highly controversial topic in many parts of the world.

GMOs in agriculture

      Genetically modified (GM) foods were first approved for human consumption in the United States in 1995, and by 1999 almost 50 percent of the corn, cotton, and soybeans (soybean) planted in the United States were GM. The introduction of these crops dramatically increased per area crop yields and, in some cases, reduced the use of chemical insecticides (insecticide). For example, the application of wide-spectrum insecticides declined in many areas growing plants, such as potatoes (potato), cotton, and corn, that were endowed with a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which produces a natural insecticide called Bt toxin. Field studies conducted in India in which Bt cotton was compared with non-Bt cotton demonstrated a 30–80 percent increase in yield from the GM crop. This increase was attributed to marked improvement in the GM plants' ability to overcome bollworm infestation, which was otherwise common. Studies of Bt cotton production in Arizona, U.S., demonstrated only small gains in yield—about 5 percent—with an estimated cost reduction of $25–65 (USD) per acre due to decreased pesticide applications. In China, a seven-year study of farms planting Bt cotton demonstrated initial success of the GM crop, with farmers who had planted Bt cotton reducing their pesticide use by 70 percent and increasing their earnings by 36 percent. However, after four years, the benefits of Bt cotton eroded as populations of insect pests other than bollworm increased, and farmers once again were forced to spray broad-spectrum pesticides. While the problem was not Bt-resistant bollworms, as had been feared initially, it nonetheless became clear that much more research was needed for communities to realize sustainable and environmentally responsible benefits from planting GM crops.

      Other GM plants were engineered for resistance to a specific chemical herbicide, rather than resistance to a natural predator or pest. Herbicide-resistant crops (HRC) have been available since the mid-1980s; these crops enable effective chemical control of weeds (weed), since only the HRC plants can survive in fields treated with the corresponding herbicide. However, because these crops encourage increased application of chemicals to the soil, rather than decreased application, they remain controversial with regard to their environmental impact.

      By 2002 more than 60 percent of processed foods consumed in the United States contained at least some GM ingredients. Despite the concerns of some consumer groups, especially in Europe, numerous scientific panels, including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, have concluded that consumption of GM foods is safe, even in cases involving GM foods with genetic material from very distantly related organisms. Indeed, foods containing GM ingredients do not require special labeling in the United States, although some groups have continued to lobby to change this ruling. By 2006, although the majority of GM crops were still grown in the Americas, GM plants tailored for production and consumption in other parts of the world were in field tests. For example, sweet potatoes (sweet potato) intended for Africa were modified for resistance to sweet potato feathery mottle virus (SPFMV) by inserting into the sweet potato genome a gene encoding a viral coat protein from the strain of virus that causes SPFMV. The premise for this modification was based on earlier studies in other plants such as tobacco in which introduction of viral coat proteins rendered plants resistant to the virus.

      The so-called “golden” rice intended for Asia was genetically modified to produce almost 20 times the beta- carotene of previous varieties. Golden rice was created by modifying the rice genome to include a gene from the daffodil Narcissus pseudonarcissus that produces an enzyme known as phyotene synthase and a gene from the bacterium Erwinia uredovora that produces an enzyme called phyotene desaturase. The introduction of these genes enabled beta-carotene, which is converted to vitamin A in the human liver, to accumulate in the rice endosperm—the edible part of the rice plant—thereby increasing the amount of beta-carotene available for vitamin A synthesis in the body.

      Another form of modified rice was generated to help combat iron deficiency, which impacts close to 30 percent of the world population. This GM crop was engineered by introducing into the rice genome a ferritin gene from the common bean, Paseolus vulgaris, that produces a protein capable of binding iron, as well as a gene from the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus (Aspergillus) that produces an enzyme capable of digesting compounds that increase iron bioavailability via digestion of phytate (an inhibitor of iron absorption). The iron-fortified GM rice was engineered to overexpress an existing rice gene that produces a cysteine-rich metallothioneinlike (metal-binding) protein that enhances iron absorption.

      A variety of other crops modified to endure the weather extremes common in other parts of the globe are also in production.

GMOs in medicine and research

 GMOs have emerged as one of the mainstays of biomedical research since the 1980s. For example, GM animal models of human genetic diseases (genetic disease, human) enabled researchers to test novel therapies and to explore the roles of candidate risk factors and modifiers of disease outcome. GM microbes, plants, and animals also revolutionized the production of complex pharmaceuticals (pharmaceutical) by enabling the generation of safer and cheaper vaccines (vaccine) and therapeutics. Pharmaceutical products range from recombinant hepatitis B vaccine produced by GM baker's yeast to injectable insulin (for diabetics) produced in GM Escherichia coli bacteria and to factor VIII (for hemophiliacs) and tissue plasminogen activator (tPA, for heart attack or stroke patients), both of which are produced in GM mammalian cells grown in laboratory culture. Furthermore, GM plants that produce “edible vaccines” are under development. Such plants, which are engineered to express antigens (antigen) derived from microbes or parasites that infect the digestive tract, might someday offer a safe, cheap, and painless way to provide vaccines worldwide, without concern for the availability of refrigeration or sterile needles. Novel DNA vaccines may be useful in the struggle to prevent diseases that have proved resistant to traditional vaccination approaches, including HIV/ AIDS, tuberculosis, and cancer.

      Genetic modification of insects (insect) has become an important area of research, especially in the struggle to prevent parasitic diseases. For example, GM mosquitoes (mosquito) have been developed that express a small protein called SM1, which blocks entry of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium, into the mosquito's gut. This results in the disruption of the parasite's life cycle and renders the mosquito malaria-resistant. Introduction of these GM mosquitoes into the wild may someday help eradicate transmission of the malaria parasite without widespread use of harmful chemicals such as DDT or disruption of the normal food chain.

      Finally, genetic modification of humans, or so-called gene therapy, is becoming a treatment option for diseases ranging from rare metabolic disorders (metabolic disease) to cancer. Coupling stem cell technology with recombinant DNA methods may someday allow stem cells derived from a patient to be modified in the laboratory to introduce a desired gene. For example, a normal beta-globin gene may be introduced into the DNA of bone marrow-derived hematopoietic stem cells from a patient with sickle cell anemia, and introduction of these GM cells (cell) into the patient could cure the disease without the need for a matched donor.

Role of GMOs in environmental management

      Another application of GMOs is in the management of environmental issues. For example, some bacteria can produce biodegradable plastics (plastic), and the transfer of this ability to microbes that can be easily grown in the laboratory may enable the wide-scale “greening” of the plastics industry. Zeneca, a British company, developed a microbially produced biodegradable plastic called Biopol. This plastic is made using a GM bacterium, Ralstonia eutropha, to convert glucose and a variety of organic acids into a flexible polymer. GMOs endowed with the bacterially encoded ability to metabolize oil and heavy metals (metal) may provide efficient bioremediation strategies.

      Genetic modification technologies may help save endangered species such as the giant panda (panda, giant), whose genome is being sequenced in an international effort led by the Beijing Genomics Institute at Shenzhen. Genetic studies of the panda genome may provide insight into why pandas have such low rates of reproductive success in captivity. A likely set of genes to consider for future genetic modification, should the goals of panda conservation warrant it, is the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The MHC genes play an important role in regulating immune function and also influence behaviours and physiological patterns associated with reproduction.

Sociopolitical relevance of GMOs

      While GMOs offer many potential benefits to society, the potential risks associated with them have fueled controversy, especially in the food industry. Many skeptics warn about the dangers that GM crops may pose to human health. For example, genetic manipulation may potentially alter the allergenic properties of crops. However, the more-established risk involves the potential spread of engineered crop genes to native flora and the possible evolution of insecticide-resistant “superbugs.” In 1998 the European Union (EU) addressed such concerns by implementing strict GMO labeling laws and a moratorium on the growth and import of GM crops. In addition, the stance of the EU on GM crops has led to trade disputes with the United States, which, by comparison, has accepted GM foods very openly. Other countries, such as Canada, China, Argentina, and Australia, also have open policies on GM foods, but some African states have rejected international food aid containing GM crops.

      The use of GMOs in medicine and research has produced a debate that is more philosophical in nature. For example, while genetic researchers believe they are working to cure disease and ameliorate suffering, many people worry that current gene therapy approaches may one day be applied to produce “designer” children or to lengthen the natural human life span. Similar to many other technologies, gene therapy and the production and application of GMOs can be used to address and resolve complicated scientific, medical, and environmental issues, but they must be used wisely.

Julia Diaz Judith Fridovich-Keil

Additional Reading

Nigel G. Halford, Genetically Modified Crops (2003), gives a historical account of genetic technology in the food industry, discusses the safety of contemporary GM foods, and comments on the future of GM crops. Alan McHughen, Pandora's Picnic Basket: The Potential and Hazards of Genetically Modified Foods (2000), provides a skeptical perspective on the safety of GM foods, focusing on the policies related to production and distribution of GM foods. John E.J. Rasko, Gabrielle O'Sullivan, and Rachel A. Ankeny, The Ethics of Inheritable Genetic Modification: A Dividing Line? (2006), explores the application of gene technology to human medicine and the ethical implications of human genetic modification. John C. Avise, The Hope, Hype, and Reality of Genetic Engineering: Remarkable Stories from Agriculture, Industry, Medicine, and the Environment (2004), covers a broad range of topics, from agriculture to medicine to bioterrorism, in remarkable detail and with reasonable objectivity.Julia Diaz Judith Fridovich-Keil

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