electromechanical transducer

▪ instrument

Introduction

      any type of device that either converts an electrical signal into sound waves (as in a loudspeaker) or converts a sound wave into an electrical signal (as in the microphone). Many of the transducers used in everyday life operate in both directions, such as the speakerphone on certain intercoms.

Microphones (microphone)

      In order to evaluate the adequacy of various types of microphones for specific uses, one must consider the linearity of their frequency response, their directional characteristics, their durability, and their cost.

Linearity and directivity

      Frequency linearity is the ability of a microphone to yield an electrical output that is proportional to the amplitude of the sound input over the entire frequency range. For music (musical performance), this must extend to much lower and much higher frequencies than for voice use only. For high-quality musical reproduction, the flatter, or more nearly linear, microphone is generally the best choice.

      Microphones also have directional characteristics. Those that uniformly pick up signals coming from all directions are referred to as omnidirectional. A common directional microphone is the cardioid microphone, so called because, when the intensity response as a function of angle is plotted on a polar graph, the curve is heart-shaped. A cardioid microphone is useful for recording live performances, where it is desirable to eliminate audience noise. A shotgun microphone has a very strong forward directional response. A parabolic reflector, similar to that of a reflecting telescope, is used to pick up and amplify relatively weak sounds coming from a certain direction. This is useful for such diverse applications as listening to bird calls and listening to the quarterback's signals at a football game.

Types of transducers

      Most microphones use either an electromagnetic or an electrostatic technique to convert sound waves into electrical signals. The dynamic microphone is constructed with a small magnet that oscillates inside a coil attached to the diaphragm. When a sound wave causes the diaphragm of the microphone to vibrate, the relative motion of the magnet and coil creates an electrical signal by magnetic induction. Either a moving-coil or a moving-magnet system may be employed, depending on which element is connected to the moving diaphragm; the moving coil is used more often. The dynamic microphone is rugged and has reasonably good linearity, so that high-quality models are useful in recording. Because a moving-coil microphone and a moving-coil loudspeaker are very similar, intercoms are often made with the same element serving both functions.

      The electrostatic or condenser microphone is constructed with the diaphragm as one plate of a parallel-plate capacitor. The most popular form of this type of microphone is the electret condenser microphone, in which the plates are given a permanent electrical charge. When a sound wave causes the charged diaphragm plate to vibrate, the voltage across the plates changes, creating a signal that can be amplified and transmitted to the recording device. An amplifier is often mounted in the microphone, so this type of microphone requires the use of a battery to power the amplifier. Because the diaphragm of a condenser microphone can be very light, compared with the more massive dynamic microphone, it is able to respond faster and at higher frequencies. Consequently, condenser microphones generally have better linearity and a greater frequency range than dynamic microphones.

      The crystal microphone uses a piezoelectric crystal as its transducer. Piezoelectric crystals are durable and cheap, and they have relatively large electrical output; for this reason, they are often used in telephones and portable sound systems. They do not have very good linearity and so are inadequate for quality sound recording.

      The ribbon microphone is unique in that it responds to the air velocity of the sound wave, not to the pressure variation. Because ribbon microphones are very sensitive, they cannot be used where they will suffer mechanical shocks. Ribbon microphones are bidirectional and can be used to pick up sounds coming from both sides of the microphone equally well.

Loudspeakers (loudspeaker)

Electromagnetic speakers

      Most loudspeakers are of the electromagnetic, or dynamic, variety, in which a voice coil moves in the gap of a permanent magnet when a time-varying current flows through the coil. The magnet is generally in the shape of a “W” or a ring. The diaphragm, or cone, of such a loudspeaker moves with the coil, converting the electric current in the coil into a pressure wave (longitudinal wave). A lit candle placed in front of a loudspeaker cone that is oscillating at about 10 hertz can render the sound wave “visible,” as the flame vibrates back and forth longitudinally with the air.

      As is the case with microphones, loudspeakers are evaluated largely on their frequency linearity. In order to achieve good frequency response at low frequencies, it is necessary to use a rather large cone; however, owing to the relatively large mass of the loudspeaker coil and cone, it is difficult to achieve good response at high frequencies with the same loudspeaker. Response can be improved by using rather large magnets, but these make a good loudspeaker rather heavy. In addition, the suspension of the coil in the magnet gap is critical, because it must provide for both rapid response and quick damping to its equilibrium position when the signal ceases. Each loudspeaker has a frequency at which it resonates most readily. For large loudspeakers this resonant frequency is useful in enhancing the bass response of the system.

      Loudspeakers are mounted in a box, horn, or other enclosure in order to separate the waves from the front and the rear of the loudspeaker and thereby prevent them from canceling each other. The most common type of enclosure is the acoustic suspension system, in which the loudspeaker is mounted in an airtight box. To prevent resonances in the box of the type described by equation (36—>) in the article sound, the inside is generally coated with some sound-absorbent material. Because of the airtight seal, the cone must compress and expand the air inside the box as it moves, so that this type of system is not very efficient in converting electrical energy into sound, especially at bass frequencies.

      The tuned port or bass reflex enclosure achieves greater efficiency and extends the bass frequency range by carefully adjusting the shape and position of a hole or tube connecting the inside of the speaker box with the outside. The volume of the box thus acts as a type of Helmholtz resonator, with a resonant frequency that is determined by the geometry of the hole or tube and is deliberately chosen so that it extends the frequency range of the speaker system smoothly to a significantly lower value. In addition, the existence of the port greatly reduces the air pressure variation inside the box, allowing the loudspeaker cone to move much more freely. For these reasons, the typical bass reflex enclosure is much more efficient than the typical acoustic suspension system.

      A horn enclosure uses a flared tube to obtain the best acoustic coupling between the loudspeaker cone and the outside, thereby radiating the best possible coherent wave from the speaker cone. Such a system is extremely efficient and is therefore used in public-address systems, open-air theatres, or other places in which great acoustic power is desired. Because a good quality bass horn enclosure is very large, such devices often use bent or folded tubes. The Klipschorn, named for its inventor, the American engineer Paul W. Klipsch, uses the walls in the corner of a room as part of the flared horn.

      Because high efficiency and linearity of a single speaker cannot be extended over the entire audible frequency range, loudspeaker systems are generally formed from two or more individual loudspeakers. A larger speaker, or woofer, produces the lower frequencies, while a smaller speaker, or tweeter, produces the higher frequencies. In such a two-way system, a passive electronic circuit called a crossover network is employed to direct the higher and lower frequencies to the appropriate loudspeaker. A larger or more efficient three-way system may add a midrange speaker, helping to create a more nearly linear response between woofer and tweeter.

      The loudspeaker arrays regularly seen in large auditoriums (auditorium) often make use of a single woofer and a single midrange speaker but two or even three high-frequency tweeters. The necessity for using a greater number of tweeters arises from the relatively smaller diffraction of high-frequency (or low-wavelength) sound waves. Because these spread out less and are therefore more directional, it may be necessary to provide several tweeters and aim them so as to cover the entire auditorium. This is unnecessary for the woofer because of the large diffraction of long wavelengths.

Electrostatic speakers

      Electrostatic loudspeakers make use of a large, thin metal plate between two parallel screens. An amplified audio signal is impressed onto the screens, polarizing the metal sheet, and the resulting electrostatic force creates a motion of the sheet, producing a sound wave. Electrostatic speakers function well at high frequencies, but they are unable to move enough air to perform well at low frequencies and often require somewhat greater power than electromagnetic speakers. Because of these limitations and other technical problems, they have seen only limited use and are not popular in consumer audio systems.

Richard E. Berg

Additional Reading

Harry F. Olson, Acoustical Engineering (1957), and Modern Sound Reproduction (1972), are the advanced classics in the field, including detailed discussions of loudspeaker design. An excellent introduction to audio equipment is provided in Institute of High Fidelity, Official Guide to High Fidelity, 2nd ed. (1978). A later introduction to audio reproduction is offered in Kenneth W. Johnson, Willard C. Walker, and John D. Cutnell, The Science of Hi-Fidelity, 2nd ed. (1981). Advanced treatment of electromechanical transducers is found in Josef Merhaut, Theory of Electroacoustics, trans. from Czech (1981); John Borwick, Microphones: Technology and Technique (1990); and Martin Colloms, High Performance Loudspeakers, 4th ed. (1991). John Eargle, Sound Recording, 2nd ed. (1980), is of interest for its treatment of older audio reproduction technology, including LP disc recordings and quadraphonic sound. Eargle's later work, Handbook of Recording Engineering, 2nd ed. (1992), also covers digital sound recording. Both audio and video magnetic tape technology is discussed in John C. Mallinson, The Foundations of Magnetic Recording (1987); and C. Denis Mee and Eric D. Daniel, Magnetic Recording, 3 vol. (1987–88). For digital techniques, see Ken C. Pohlmann, Principles of Digital Audio, 2nd ed. (1989), on the compact disc; and John Watkinson, RDAT (1991), on the rotary head digital audiotape.Richard E. Berg

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