commercial transaction

▪ economics

Introduction

      in law, the core of the legal rules governing business dealings. The most common types of commercial transactions, involving such specialized areas of the law and legal instruments as sale of goods and documents of title, are discussed below. Despite variations of detail, all commercial transactions have one thing in common: they serve to transmit economic values such as materials, products, and services from those who want to exchange them for another value, usually money, to those who need them and are willing to pay a countervalue. It is the purpose of the relevant legal rules to regulate this exchange of values, to spell out the rights and obligations of each party, and to offer remedies if one of the parties breaches its obligations or cannot perform them for some reason.

      The law of commercial transactions thus covers a wide range of business activities. It does not, however, govern such essentially noncommercial relationships as those involved in succession and family law. Historically, land was of such prime importance that it was not subject to frequent disposition and therefore was also excluded from the category of commercial transactions.

      In some countries the term commercial transactions is merely descriptive. In Anglo-American law (common law) especially, it is merely a collective name for those rules that relate to business dealings. The term itself has no legal consequences. It serves only as a convenient and illustrative shelter under which certain legal rules may be assembled.

      Many countries, however, have established a technical concept of commercial transactions with precise definitions and important legal consequences. This is most often the case in the civil-law (civil law) countries. In these countries the term commercial transactions thus has more than a merely descriptive function. It designates in part those rules that are peculiar to commercial transactions. In France, for example, bankruptcy is open only to individuals who are merchants and to business organizations, and there are special rules applying to commercial cases. In Germany, similarly, the general rules on consumer sales are in part superseded by special rules on commercial sales. A commercial transaction thus results in a number of specific legal consequences that differ from those of ordinary consumer transactions. Such a special commercial regime exists usually because it is thought that the ordinary citizen should not be exposed to the rigours of commercial rules that presuppose a knowledgeable, versatile individual who does not need as much protection against the legal risks and consequences of his dealings.

      In those countries in which specific legal consequences attach to commercial transactions, it is necessary to develop a precise definition of what constitutes a commercial transaction. Although such definitions are more or less closely related, they are peculiar to each individual country. The majority of them, found generally at the beginning of a special “commercial code,” combine two elements: definitions of a “merchant” and of a “commercial transaction.” In certain countries—Germany, for example—the emphasis is on the definition of the merchant; in others, such as France, the emphasis is on that of the commercial transaction (acte de commerce). This latter criterion, the so-called objective test, was adopted in the 19th century for ideological reasons, the French wanting to avoid any repetition of the pre-Revolutionary differentiation of legal rules according to the social condition of persons. However, whatever the test, the results are quite similar, because the gist of the various definitions is that a transaction is “commercial” if it is concluded by a merchant in the exercise of his profession.

      It should be mentioned that Socialist countries do not recognize the concept of commercial transactions. This is because such a concept is somewhat suggestive of a capitalistic form of economy. The implication would be the more invidious, since the state, directly or through the various forms of state enterprises, is practically the only trader in Socialist countries. Socialist countries have developed a mixed system, combining more or less obligatory state planning with the autonomous fixing of the remaining terms of their exchanges. The breach of these so-called economic contracts may entail the payment of damages to the other contracting state enterprise, thus drawing the attention of the state bank to violations of plan and contract discipline. These special rules for dealings between state enterprises within each country and also for enterprises from different Socialist countries are called “economic” laws.

Historical development

      Only a few traces of rules on commercial transactions in antiquity have survived. The most notable is a rule developed by the seafaring Phoenicians (Phoenicia) and named after the island of Rhodes in the eastern Mediterranean. The “Rhodian Law (Rhodian Sea Law)” provided that losses incurred by a sea captain as a result of trying to save ship and cargo from peril must be shared proportionately by all owners of cargo and by the shipowner. If, for example, one merchant's cargo was thrown overboard in order to save the ship from sinking, the loss would be shared among the shipowner and all the other merchants with cargoes aboard. This rule applied in the entire Mediterranean and is today known in the maritime law of all nations as general average.

      Another important rule, also of maritime character, arose in connection with the maritime (bottomry) loan that developed in Athens (Greek law). A capitalist would lend money for a marine trading expedition. The loan would be secured by ship and cargo, but repayment of the capital and payment of interest were conditional on the ship's safe return. The interest rate of 24–36 percent, considerably beyond normal rates, reflected the highly speculative risks involved. This transaction later developed into marine insurance.

      Much more is known of the commercial law of the Romans (Roman law). It was in Rome that for the first time a separation developed between the ordinary civil law and special rules for foreign (that is, primarily trade) relations. Since the civil law applied only to Roman citizens, trade and other relations with and among noncitizens were subject to a separate set of rules—the jus gentium, or law of nations. The latter exhibited two traits that have become characteristic of the law of commercial transactions: it was more liberal than the strict rules of the civil law, and it was applied uniformly in various parts of the world.

      As far as specific rules are concerned, the Romans received and preserved the two institutions of the general average and the maritime loan that had been developed earlier. They added two other rules of maritime law: the liability of the shipowner for contracts concluded by the ship's master (an early recognition of an agency relationship that was later generalized) and the liability of the ship's master for damage to or loss of the passengers' luggage and equipment. Innkeepers were charged with the same liability. Banking transactions and bookkeeping were well developed, and some prohibitory rules were enacted against capitalist excesses. Thus, the legal interest rate was lowered. In the postclassical period an attempt at achieving a “just price” was made by introducing a rule that a sale could be annulled by the seller if the price paid to him was less than 50 percent of the value of the goods sold.

      In the Middle Ages the Christian Church attempted to enforce certain moral commands adverse to commercial transactions. The taking of interest for loans of money was considered income without true work and therefore sinful and prohibited. There was also an attempt to generalize the idea of a just price. Although both rules, and especially the former, influenced the law and the economy for centuries, neither of them finally prevailed in the secular world.

      Another feature of the medieval period was the development of a separate commercial law—the law merchant. Like the jus gentium of early Roman days, the law merchant was different from the existing ordinary rules that varied from place to place. The need for certainty and uniformity in the provisions governing trade motivated the growth of one set of rules for commercial transactions, valid everywhere in Europe. These rules were disseminated and applied in special courts conducted at the numerous international fairs held in various countries of Europe and attended by local and foreign merchants. The main sources of the law merchant were the customs of the most developed commercial communities of the time—the northern Italian cities. Later, in the 13th and 14th centuries, Italian, French, and Spanish cities made the first attempts at codifying certain branches of commercial law.

      The medieval period saw the development of company and banking law. The compagnia and the comenda, forerunners of the partnership and limited partnership, were in frequent use. The Italians created a sophisticated system of bills of exchange used partly for the transfer and exchange of money, partly (by means of endorsement) for payment, and partly (by discounting) for credit purposes. They also invented bankruptcy as a method for dealing equally with an insolvent merchant's creditors.

      In the period following the medieval era, but before the French Revolution, the law of commercial transactions lost its universal character. The birth of pronouncedly national states in Europe provoked a “nationalization” of the law. In 1673 and 1681 the French king Louis XIV enacted ordinances on land and maritime commerce. These were precursors of the French Commercial Code of 1807, which set the pattern for national codification of the law of commercial transactions in the Latin countries of Europe and America. In England the chief justice Lord Mansfield began from about 1756 to blend the law merchant into the common law. Only maritime law, although nationally codified, preserved some of its universal traits.

      Of great consequence for the later development of commercial law was the foundation of colonial companies, usually through royal charter, for the exploitation and administration of the colonies of the European countries. The first, the Dutch East India Company, was chartered in 1602. Only such companies were able to attract the immense amounts of capital that were needed. The liability of each member was limited to his contribution, which was represented by share certificates that were transferable. Limited liability of shareholders and negotiability of shares were in fact fundamental to the operation of these companies. They were adopted and refined later into the most important vehicle of modern capitalism—the corporation.

Elements of the law of commercial transactions

      In the 20th century, domestic as well as international commerce (international trade) has experienced an expansion far beyond any earlier dimensions. With the multiplication of commercial transactions the demand for legal (international law) certainty has increased, especially for transactions across national boundaries.

Contractual relations

      The first response to the multitude of practically identical transactions was the standardization of contracts. Printed standard contracts or forms lay down those provisions that are essential in the eyes of the drafting party. It depends upon the relative economic strength of the other party whether departures from the printed form can be negotiated. Trade associations as well as individual enterprises have developed and elaborated forms and standard contracts for their members.

      The same technique of standardization has been adopted for international transactions. The forms and standard contracts of certain well-known trade associations, especially British ones, such as the London Corn Trade Association, are used by exporters and importers in many countries. The same is true of many shipping transactions. Even international bodies, such as the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, have elaborated printed forms for certain international contracts. Apart from standardizing the contract practices of a particular party, these uniform conditions also help to bridge the gap between the many different national rules. They are a means of achieving partial uniformity of law for international trade.

      The development of uniform legislative rules for international transactions has been another distinctive feature in the 20th century. This trend resulted from the uncertainties to which international commercial transactions that came under two or more national jurisdictions were exposed. International conventions have resulted in the unification of numerous rules, especially in the areas of transportation, industrial property (patents and trademarks), copyright, and commercial paper (bills of exchange and checks). Less successful so far have been attempts in the fields of sale of goods and the conclusion of contracts.

      Despite considerable progress in the field of unification, none of the uniform rules is really worldwide in scope, many being limited to a continent or to narrower regional groups such as the countries of the European Economic Community or the Southern African Development Coordination Conference.

Sale of goods

      The sale is the most common commercial transaction. All the rights that the seller has in a specific object are transferred to the buyer in return for the latter's paying the purchase price to the seller. The objects that may thus be transferred may be movable or immovable and tangible or intangible. (Patents are an example of intangibles.)

      Not all transfers of goods to another person for any purpose whatsoever constitute a sale. Goods may be transferred for use only (lease), for safekeeping or storage (bailment), as a present (gift), or in exchange for another good (barter). They may also be transferred as security. A sale is involved only if the seller intends to part with the object completely and conceivably forever and to receive instead a sum of money as the price.

      The seller's complete parting with all his rights in the object sold means, in legal parlance, transfer of ownership to the buyer. One may say that the transfer of ownership for a price is the essence of a sale. But this rule applies only in countries with a free economy, not for Socialist states, where the sale of goods among state enterprises transfers not ownership but merely the right of administration. Such sales are therefore designated as “delivery contracts.” For most practical purposes, however, a sales contract and a delivery contract can be equated.

Sellers and buyers

Obligations of the seller

      The seller's duties are three: he must deliver the goods, transfer ownership in them, and warrant their conformity to the specifications of the contract.

      Delivery of the goods sold to the buyer must be at the time and place and in the manner agreed upon by the parties. Nondelivery is sanctioned by the various legal systems in three different ways. Anglo-American law does not, in general, permit the buyer to sue for delivery of the merchandise but requires him to buy elsewhere and to demand damages from the original seller. The buyer is entitled to a decree for delivery (specific performance) only if damages are an inadequate remedy because the buyer cannot obtain substitute goods in the market. On the European continent, by contrast, a buyer may always demand delivery. Merchants do not usually go to the trouble of suing for delivery, however, but act voluntarily as their English and American counterparts are by law enjoined to act: they buy the same or similar goods in the market and then sue the nonperforming seller for damages. The measure of damages is usually the difference (if there is any) between the original contract price and the market price at the time of the substituted purchase. This covers the loss arising directly from the seller's nondelivery. Additional loss, such as expense arising from the substituted purchase or a loss on the intended resale of the goods, may also be claimed as damages from the seller in most cases.

      From the point of view of the buyer, delayed delivery is connected with nondelivery in two ways. After the time for delivery has passed, the buyer may not know whether the seller is failing to deliver at all or whether delivery has merely been delayed. Further, the delay in delivery may be as harmful to the buyer's interests as outright nondelivery. This latter situation is particularly likely to arise if the agreed time for delivery was of the essence of the contract (that is, if it constituted so vital a stipulation that without compliance the contract could not be fulfilled). Even if the parties did not agree expressly that prompt delivery was crucial, such a condition may have been implicit because of the nature of the goods sold (for example, in a contract for the sale of raw materials subject to marked fluctuations in market price or for the sale of perishable or seasonal goods).

      Countries differ considerably in the treatment of delayed delivery. Most legal systems require a more or less formal request for delivery or information by the buyer from the seller if a precise delivery date had not been agreed upon. If a precise time had been fixed but was not essential, such a request for information is usually unnecessary, except in France and some other Latin countries. But even if the buyer is not obligated to make inquiries of the seller, additional steps may be necessary in order to obtain remedies for nondelivery. In France and some other Latin countries, the buyer must bring suit for dissolution of the contract, and the judge may grant days of grace to the seller for performance. In Germany, the buyer must grant the seller a reasonable period of time and declare unambiguously that he will refuse acceptance thereafter. Neither Anglo-American nor Scandinavian law protects the seller with such a period of grace. If the time element was crucial, the buyer's remedies in these countries are the same as for nondelivery. If, however, the seller did in fact deliver, although at a later date than the one set in the contract, the buyer may claim general damages for the loss arising from the delay.

      Under certain circumstances the seller may be excused from his obligation to deliver on time. This is generally the case if prompt delivery becomes impracticable because of an unforeseeable and unavoidable obstacle. But if the seller owes a quantity of a certain kind of product and has not by the time delivery is due to the buyer appropriated specific pieces for the purpose of delivery, he generally is not excused. In major contracts the parties usually make specific provisions concerning the conditions under which the seller is to be exempted from liability for late delivery.

      Delivery must be accompanied by transfer of ownership to enable the buyer to enjoy full legal rights over the objects sold. The method of transferring ownership varies in two main ways. In most countries, ownership in a specific object is transferred with the conclusion of the contract of sale unless the parties agree otherwise. Such a transaction in Anglo-American law is called a “sale,” as distinct from a mere “contract to sell.” In the case of generic goods (any goods within a class rather than specifically designated goods; for example, 10 tons of coal), ownership cannot pass to the buyer until the seller has specified those goods which he intends to deliver (by transferring 10 tons of coal to a carrier for transportation to the buyer). But the parties may delay the transfer of ownership, perhaps until delivery to the buyer or until payment of the purchase price. If nothing has been agreed, the seller, although no longer the owner, may refuse to deliver or stop the goods en route to the buyer if the latter's solvency has become doubtful after conclusion of the contract. If the seller resells the same goods to a second buyer, the first buyer's claim to the goods prevails unless the second buyer has received the goods.

      Although it would appear to be logical that a buyer cannot become the full owner unless the seller had unrestricted ownership, the demands of commercial expediency have carved out important exceptions in favour of a purchaser in good faith. Details vary considerably from country to country. At least between merchants, the acquisition of goods from one in possession of them who can in good conscience be regarded by the other as their owner, or at least as being entitled to their disposition, usually confers ownership on the buyer, even if the seller was not in fact the owner.

      The sanctions available to the buyer who does not obtain unrestricted ownership vary from country to country. Some countries impose upon the seller the outright obligation to procure ownership in the goods sold to the buyer. A violation of this duty is a breach of contract and opens the same remedies as those for nondelivery, including a suit for transfer of ownership. But in most countries the seller's obligation is limited to warranting “quiet possession” (possession)—that is, guaranteeing enjoyment of the goods undisturbed by claims of third parties. In some countries the warranty of quiet possession entitles the buyer who is sued by a third party to call the seller into the proceedings or even to turn the proceedings over to the seller so that the latter may defend the action. Everywhere the buyer may claim damages from the seller, covering not only the difference between the contract and the market price of the goods but also the expenses of defense against the claims of the third party. The buyer's rights are usually excluded if he knew of the seller's defective title at the time of contracting or if he became aware of it at some later time but nevertheless accepted the goods.

      Goods sold must conform to the specifications of the contract as to their physical qualities, kind, and quantity. The rules on the delivery of goods of defective quality have a long history. Roman as well as English law originally denied the buyer the right of any claims as to quality under the doctrine of caveat emptor (“let the buyer beware”). This general rule did not apply, however, if the buyer had received express guarantees from the seller. Gradually the law developed various “implied warranties,” the breach of which gave rise to certain special rights. As a result, the quality of goods is generally considered defective if they are unfit for the ordinary purposes for which such goods are used or unfit for the buyer's special purpose, provided the latter was known to the seller. As soon as possible after delivery, the buyer must examine the goods for defects and must notify the seller if any are found. The buyer may then accept the goods but make a deduction from the purchase price for the defect. In most legal systems the buyer may alternatively reject the goods and dissolve the contract of sale. The buyer may also claim damages from the seller but usually only under special conditions. A third remedy open to the buyer is to demand delivery of conforming goods, but this right is usually limited to generic goods. The buyer's rights are vitiated if he knew of the defect at the time of contracting or if he failed to avail himself of his rights immediately on delivery or within a limited time thereafter. Remedies for defective goods are often widely modified by contractual agreement between the parties.

Obligations of the buyer

      The buyer's main duties are simple: payment of the purchase price and acceptance of delivery. Contemporary legal systems are no longer concerned with enforcing a just price. Only a few European countries (including Italy and France) still have rules on exorbitant prices and only in certain special fields. The buyer is strictly responsible for payment of the agreed price and cannot excuse himself by invoking his financial straits. Only war, revolution, exchange restrictions, and other unforeseeable and unavoidable obstacles to performance may, under certain circumstances, excuse the buyer from his duty to pay.

      Just as the buyer is often unable to secure specific performance of the seller's duty to deliver, so the seller is not always able to enforce his claim for acceptance of delivery against a buyer who refuses to take delivery. Most countries do not object to such a claim, but in England and the United States the remedy is to refer the seller to the market: as long as he is still the owner of the goods, he should at least attempt to resell them at a reasonable price. Only if this is impossible or impracticable may he sue the buyer.

      In many other countries the seller, though not obliged, is at least entitled to resell the goods. The proceeds of the resale diminish the seller's loss; however, the original buyer remains responsible for the difference. The seller may also, without actual resale of the goods, claim this difference as damages. If the buyer merely delays payment, the seller may usually claim compensation for any resulting loss. Quite frequently this loss is calculated in a lump sum and takes the form of interest on the outstanding purchase price, the rate of which is in many countries provided for by statute. Additional damages for any further loss usually may be claimed. The buyer is, in general, excused from the payment of interest as well as additional damages if the delay of payment was due to unforeseeable and unavoidable obstacles.

      The buyer's obligation to take delivery of the goods depends, as regards details, on the precise agreement of the parties: if steel plates, for example, have been sold “free on board vessel,” the seller must load the plates on board the vessel named by the buyer. If the latter does not name a ship, the seller cannot perform his duty of delivering the goods.

      If the buyer fails to make provision for taking delivery, the seller still must preserve the goods, although he is no longer fully responsible for their fate. In many countries the seller may deposit the goods; in others he has the right to resell or a choice between the two. The proceeds of the resale take the place of the goods and have, therefore, to be paid to the buyer. The seller may claim damages arising from the buyer's breach of duty.

Mutual obligations of the seller and buyer

      The duties of seller and buyer do not exist separately and independently from each other but are mutual and concurrent. Both parties assume duties in anticipation of the performance promised by the other party. It is a major consequence of the principle of mutuality of obligations that the duties of seller and buyer must be performed in general at the same time unless the parties agree otherwise. In international sales transactions it is often agreed that the seller must ship the goods to the buyer, so that the latter need not pay until he has received the goods and has thus been able to inspect them. Sellers may reestablish the time balance by demanding “payment against documents”—that is, payment when the buyer receives the documents of title, although the goods themselves may still be with the seller or in transit. The law everywhere protects the time sequence agreed upon by the parties by allowing a party to refuse its own performance as long as the agreed advance performance has not been made by the other party. The technical legal means used to achieve this result vary considerably. In exceptional circumstances the party that is obligated to perform first may refuse to do so. This may be justified if the other party's financial situation after conclusion of the contract has become so aggravated that payment is doubtful.

      Various countries differ widely in determining when risk for lost or damaged goods passes to the buyer. In several countries, risk passes at the conclusion of the contract to sell; in others, notably France and England, risk is tied to the transfer of ownership in the goods; in Germany, risk passes at the time of delivery; and, in the United States and the Scandinavian countries, risk passes when the seller has essentially performed his duties. In all countries, the parties may, expressly or implicitly, agree to some other suitable arrangement.

Sales laws

      The many differences in sales laws throughout the world are a serious obstacle to effective and smooth international trade. In view of the great volume of international trade, attempts at unification of sales law have been undertaken for many years. The most thorough results may be expected from a unification of the diverging rules on sales themselves. A more modest approach, however, has been to develop common rules on how to proceed when a conflict between the divergent national sales laws (conflict of laws) occurs. Efforts at unification have in fact followed both lines.

      A considerable degree of unification of sales rules has been achieved by the wide acceptance of certain form contracts. But, however successful some of these form contracts have proved, they have two important drawbacks: their validity depends on their acceptance by both contracting parties, and they cannot override the mandatory rules of national law.

      These drawbacks can be overcome only by unifying national legislation. This method was used with great success by the former Socialist countries of eastern Europe. These agreed, within the framework of Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), on Uniform Conditions for Contracts of Delivery Between Foreign Trade Enterprises (1958, revised 1968 and 1975). The elaborate “conditions” had the force of law; enterprises could not deviate from them except under special circumstances. For cases not expressly covered by the conditions, there was a uniform conflicts rule that declared the law of the seller's country applicable.

      Other countries have had much less success. After almost 40 years of preparation, an international conference at The Hague adopted in 1964 a Uniform Law on International Sales. Under the auspices of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), a revised Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods was signed in 1980 and entered into force on Jan. 1, 1988, in some countries.

      A much more modest approach to the harmonization of legal divergences is the unification of the conflicts rules relating to international sales. A convention to this effect concluded in The Hague in 1955 has been ratified by eight European countries. According to this convention, the parties are free to choose the applicable law; if they do not do this, the law at the seller's place of business will, in general, govern the sales contract. The effect of these rules is, however, limited. They merely ensure that the courts in the participating countries will apply the same law to an international sales contract; the divergences between the different sales laws are not overcome.

Negotiable instruments

      The negotiable instrument, which is essentially a document embodying a right to the payment of money and which may be transferred from person to person, developed historically from efforts to make credit instruments transferable; that is, documents proving that somebody was in their debt were used by creditors to meet their own liabilities. Thus a promise of A to pay B a certain sum at a specified date in the future could be used by B to pay a debt to C. This “negotiability of credit” was facilitated by the development of a variety of negotiable instruments including promissory notes, checks, and drafts (bills of exchange). These are in fact the most common negotiable instruments in use, and the following discussion will be confined to them.

      Negotiable instruments are used for purposes of payment or credit and as security. Sometimes one instrument may perform all three functions. A typical “trade bill” used in connection with an inland or an export sale serves as an example of this: the seller, according to a clause of the contract of sale, may draw a bill on the buyer (that is, prepare a “promise to pay” that the buyer must sign) or, in the case of an overseas buyer, on a bank acting for the buyer, payment to be made within the agreed time (such as 30, 60, or 90 days after delivery). The buyer or his bank signs the bill as drawee and thereby becomes acceptor. On return of the instrument the seller may use this accepted bill to pay his own debts or may sell it to his bank (discounting). The buyer may also, although this is not typical for commercial transactions, draw a check on his own bank and send it to the seller.

      The most common and most complex form of negotiable instrument is the draft, or bill of exchange (exchange, bill of). It has been defined in England as an unconditional order in writing addressed by one person to another, signed by the person giving it (the drawer), and requiring the person to whom it is addressed (the drawee) to pay on demand or at a fixed or determinable future time a certain sum of money to, or to the order of, a specified person (the payee) or to the bearer. In the United States the definition is the same, except that an instrument may only be made payable “to order or to bearer.” If the drawee assents to the order and accepts the bill, which is done by signing his name, or his name with the word “accepted,” across the face of the paper, he is called an acceptor. The person to whom a bill is transferred by endorsement is called the endorsee. Any person in possession of a bill, whether as payee, endorsee, or bearer, is termed a holder and, if he is a bona fide purchaser, a holder in due course.

      The basic rule applying to drafts is that any signature appearing on a draft obligates the signer to pay the amount drawn. It is the characteristic feature of a draft that it is not limited to the three-cornered relationship among drawer, drawee, and the named or unnamed creditor. Rather, the creditor may transfer it (for purposes of payment or borrowing) to a fourth party, and the latter may transfer it to a fifth, and so on, in a long chain. The means of accomplishing a transfer from one creditor to another is by endorsement or delivery. If an instrument is payable “to order,” the signature (endorsement) of the transferor is required. The draft is then delivered to the new creditor. If the instrument is payable “to bearer,” delivery alone suffices. Endorsement transfers the rights of the endorser to the new holder and also creates a liability of the endorser for payment of the amount of the draft if the drawee does not meet payment when the draft becomes due.

      A failure to pay a draft must be more or less formally ascertained (in continental Europe through a formal “certificate of dishonour”). Upon due notice of dishonour, the holder of the draft may claim payment from any endorser whose signature appears on the instrument, and he in turn may claim from prior endorsers, from the drawee, and from the drawer.

      The necessity of unifying the legal rules relating to negotiable instruments used in international trade has long been felt, and considerable success in this direction has been achieved. The principal rules in English law are laid down in the Bills of Exchange Act of 1882. This act spread through the whole Commonwealth and also influenced the United States Negotiable Instruments Act proposed in 1896 and eventually adopted throughout the United States. This latter act has since been replaced by article 3 of the Uniform Commercial Code. On the Continent uniformity between the French and the German approach was first achieved at two conferences held at The Hague in 1910 and 1912 and finally by two Geneva conventions of 1930 and 1931 on uniform laws for drafts, promissory notes, and checks. These latter agreements included some uniform provisions on conflicts of law. These have been adopted by most European countries and by many states in other parts of the world. Neither England nor the United States accepted these conventions, however, partly for fear of upsetting the uniformity already achieved in the Anglo-American orbit.

Documents of title

      Whereas negotiable instruments embody a claim for the payment of money, documents of title embody claims to goods (carriage of goods). The most common such documents are the bill of lading (lading, bill of) and the warehouse receipt.

      A bill of lading is a receipt for goods delivered for transportation by a ship. On receiving the goods alongside or on board, a dock or mate's receipt is issued and is later turned in for the bill of lading proper. The bill of lading may certify receipt of the goods either on board the ship (“shipped on board”) or alongside (“received for shipment”). This latter form of bill of lading is less valuable since it does not prove the fact and date of loading. Apart from proving receipt of the goods to be shipped, the bill of lading incorporates the terms of the contract concluded between the carrier and the consignor for the transportation of the goods to the port of destination. A great many of the printed clauses on a bill of lading purport to excuse the carrier from liability for delayed delivery or from liability for damage to or loss of the goods. These clauses are valid, however, only if and insofar as they comply with the applicable national law or, in the case of ocean transport, with the Brussels Convention on Limitation of Liability (1923, amended 1968) that incorporates the Hague Rules, which have been adopted by the major shipping nations. Subject to these contractual terms, the consignee (the person to whom the goods are being shipped) may, by virtue of the bill of lading, demand delivery of the transported goods at the port of destination. In the simplest case the consignor sends the bill of lading by airmail to the consignee so that the latter may claim the goods on the arrival of the ship. The carrier may only deliver the goods to a person holding a duly negotiated bill of lading.

      A bill of lading and the claim it represents may be transferred to another person by endorsement and delivery of the document. If made out to bearer (which happens rarely), the bill may even be transferred by mere delivery. By such transfer all the rights and obligations embodied in the document are transferred to the new holder. The latter is entitled to demand delivery of the goods unless the carrier proves that the holder knew or through gross negligence was unaware of the transferor's lack of title to the bill. In contrast with the rules on negotiable instruments, an endorsement of a bill of lading does not make the endorser liable for any default of the carrier or previous endorsers. The bill represents the goods, and transfer of the bill is, therefore, equivalent to delivery of the goods to the transferee.

      It depends on the intention of the parties whether ownership in the goods or merely a security interest in them is to be transferred. A security interest is typically acquired by a bank, which gives credit on the security of the shipped goods. The above rules on bills of lading, though not formally unified, are essentially the same in all the seafaring nations. Most of them apply also to bills of lading issued in river navigation.

      The warehouse receipt is a document that shares the essential traits of a bill of lading, except that the duty to transport the goods is replaced by an obligation to store them. This receipt also embodies the claim for delivery of the goods and may, therefore, if made out to order, be transferred by endorsement and delivery. According to the intention of the parties, such a transfer may pass ownership in the stored goods or create other rights, such as a security interest, in them.

Letters of credit

      Of great importance in international trade is the letter of credit (credit, letter of). A letter of credit is essentially an authorization made by a buyer to his agent (usually a bank) to make payment to a seller. The letter of credit comes into use when there is a substantial time lag between the dispatch of goods by a seller and their receipt by the buyer. The seller, having sent the goods off, has fulfilled his part of the contract and seeks payment. The buyer, not having received the goods and being unable to inspect them, will be reluctant to pay. To overcome this difficulty, the buyer and seller make arrangements to have intermediaries operating in each of the two countries involved make settlement. The buyer instructs his bank to issue a letter of credit authorizing payment to be made to the seller when the latter's part of the contract has been fulfilled (usually when the seller has dispatched the correct quantity of conforming goods). The buyer's (or issuing) bank ascertains whether or not this has been done by obtaining the cooperation of a bank in the seller's country. This bank (the “corresponding” bank), having inspected all the relevant documents of title and bills of lading to ensure that the seller has performed, makes payment to the seller, often by means of a bill of exchange or other credit device. The document of title, bills of lading, and so forth are then mailed to the buyer. The buyer then reimburses his bank, which in turn reimburses the corresponding bank for making payment to the seller.

      In no other branch of international trade have the efforts at unification of law been more successful than in that of letters of credit. In 1933 the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris published the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits, which was revised in 1951, in 1962, and once again in 1983. It has been adopted by banks and by banking associations in almost all countries of the world.

Loan of money

      Second only to sales, the lending of money is one of the most frequent types of commercial transaction. No developed economy could exist without the credit financing (business finance) of industrial investments, of commercial transactions, or of private acquisitions. A lender gives money to the borrower, who is obliged to repay it and to pay interest as well. Interest is thus the price for the utilization of the lender's money. The payment of such a price has not, however, always been regarded as permissible. For centuries the medieval Christian church stigmatized interest as income without true work and, therefore, sinful. Religious restrictions on interest are, to this day, of great importance in the Islāmic countries. In Socialist countries the lending of money against interest, except through state banks, is strongly discouraged.

      A loan is a contract between lender and borrower. It may consist of the immediate giving of money against the borrower's promise of repayment, or the contract may contain a promise of the lender to give the money at a future date. In the latter case it may sometimes happen that a borrower must sue an unwilling lender for performance of the promise to make the loan. As in the comparable situation of nondelivery in a sales contract, Anglo-American law (and also that of some other countries) refuses an action for specific performance and provides merely for damages, whereas most of the legal systems of continental Europe admit such an action. Specific performance of an agreement to take a loan may similarly be enforced against a borrower in most civil-law countries but not under Anglo-American law.

       interest on loans is today generally admitted. Among merchants it often must be paid even if not expressly agreed by the parties, since no merchant is regarded as willing to lend money without receiving interest thereon. Many countries fix the rate of interest to be applied in such cases. This legal rate has frequently been somewhere between 4 and 7 percent. Modern legislation sometimes establishes flexible rates, such as 2 percent above the (fluctuating) official discount rate of the country. Many countries also limit the maximum amount of interest that may be charged even if both parties have agreed on a higher rate. The maximum figure has frequently been between 6 and 12 percent but in certain countries goes up to 30 percent or more. These “usury statutes” are likely to be circumvented by lenders who may demand considerable sums as commissions or “expenses.” More flexible, but also less certain, are general laws declaring certain “usurious” transactions null and void.

      If a borrower does not repay a loan by the agreed date, he must reimburse the lender for his loss. Without even having to prove loss, the lender is at least entitled to default interest (that is, interest accruing after the due date of repayment). Some countries permit the lender to claim additional damages, whereas others exclude them.

      A few countries, notably the United States, have established special rules regulating loans to consumers. This has usually been in response to abuses to which consumers have been exposed in connection with installment sales (hire-purchase agreements).

Security on loans

      In the event of a borrower's bankruptcy, the lender may have to share the borrower's assets with competing creditors and may receive only partial satisfaction or even none at all. Lenders, therefore, urge borrowers to give security for the loan unless the credit standing of a specific debtor is free from any doubt. A security interest on goods (called collateral) entitles the creditor to satisfy his outstanding claim from the charged good to the exclusion of the other creditors of the borrower. Hence a security interest gives the secured creditor a right of preferential satisfaction from the goods charged with the security interest.

      The demand for security on loans varies from country to country. In general, the demand is greater the more developed the credit system is. But even among countries having a comparable credit structure there are variations. Thus, certain countries, especially France, put legal obstacles in the way of modern forms of security, whereas others have recourse to various forms of personal security.

      The oldest security device that is common everywhere is the pledge (or pawn (pawnbroking)). The borrower delivers the goods to be charged to the lender, who keeps them until repayment of the secured loan. This security device has become rather outmoded today and is utilized only in relatively few situations. But pawnbrokers continue to operate on a minor scale, and banks keep documents of title (such as property deeds) as security.

      The decisive drawback of the pledge is the necessity of transferring the goods to be charged to the lender. Hence the borrower cannot use them for production, sale, or lease. There has thus been a trend away from the pledge to other forms of security by which the goods charged remain in the hands of the borrower. Many new devices have been introduced since the latter half of the 19th century, and they vary considerably in their operation. For want of a common descriptive name, they will be referred to as “no-pledge devices.” They all attempt to overcome the problem posed by the fact that third persons, relying on the outer appearance of a well-funded borrower, have no means of knowing whether or not the borrower's assets are in reality already charged in favour of another lender.

      The most common method of warning third persons against existing security interests has been by their registration. Goods so charged are entered in a public register together with details about the goods themselves and the security agreement. A simpler method of giving publicity to a security interest is by marking the charged goods. This is still sometimes used in the case of cattle. Some countries also employ the method of “privileging” specific lenders. They endow the loans of certain lenders (usually publicly held or controlled banks) with a security interest or a right of preferential satisfaction. All the borrower's goods, or at least those that have been acquired by means of the loan, are automatically charged.

      In the absence of any of the above three methods, various indirect techniques are usually employed. The need for sellers to retain a security interest in the goods sold until the purchase price has been paid has been particularly acute. In some, especially Latin, countries, the rules on sales provide the seller with a statutory right of preferred satisfaction. But in most jurisdictions, the seller must make his own arrangements. Since the transfer of ownership in the goods is subject to the agreement of the parties, the seller may retain his ownership in them until he has received the full purchase price. Such a “conditional sale” is recognized in many countries even without registration, since it is regarded as a modified sales transaction. If the seller himself is using credit to finance his credit sales, the financer can usually be secured by transferring to him the seller's retained ownership. In some countries, including Great Britain, the so-called hire-purchase method is widespread, especially in sales to consumers. The seller retains ownership but surrenders the goods that the buyer intends to acquire on hire to him against a down payment and a monthly rental. If in due course the rental payments accumulate to the sale price, ownership is transferred to the purchaser. Here again registration is usually not required since the transaction is cast into the form of a lease.

      In the case of lenders who are not at the same time sellers it has been more difficult to find adequate security devices. One of the most successful methods has been developed in close analogy to hire-purchase sales transactions. The borrower transfers ownership in the goods financed by the loan to the lender but retains them in his possession by means of a lease agreement between him and the lender. After repayment of the secured loan the borrower reacquires title from the lender.

      Under modern economic conditions it is rarely feasible to deprive the borrower of charged goods, as the rise of no-pledge security interests demonstrates. But the goods frequently do not even rest in the borrower's hands. This is especially likely to be the case if the borrower is a trader; he will probably want to sell the goods that he has charged. A manufacturer may similarly wish to replace charged machinery. In these instances the need arises to allow the borrower the desired disposition of the goods and at the same time to maintain the lender's security interest. A number of legal systems, however, do not yet recognize the legitimate interests of both parties in this situation. They prohibit any disposition by the borrower and may not admit a security interest in goods that remain in the borrower's hands for purposes of resale. This problem has been solved in the United States and Great Britain, although on slightly different lines in the two countries. In the United States the original registration may provide that the security interest is to extend to the proceeds from the disposition of the goods or to products of the charged goods. In Great Britain the right to a “floating charge,” granted against its assets by a borrowing company to a lender, has the same effect.

      A security interest proves its legal value when under attack by third parties. If it is to fulfill its function of guaranteeing to the lender preferential satisfaction of his claim, the charged goods must be immunized as much as possible against the rights of other persons. The third party is frequently a person who has unknowingly purchased charged goods: borrowers in financial straits may be unable to resist the temptation of selling charged goods left in their hands to a third person without the consent of the lender and without making the proceeds of the sale available to him. Most countries tend to protect the buyer, provided he neither knew nor ought to have known of the existing security interest. If the charged goods are marked, the buyer can hardly claim to have purchased in good faith. But mere registration does not usually give the buyer sufficient notice, since sales transactions cannot be burdened by requiring the buyer to search a register in a distant place.

      The borrower's other creditors are also likely to have an interest in charged goods. But creditors, as distinct from buyers, are usually expected to search existing registers of charged goods. If they have neglected to do this, they must suffer the consequence of being subordinated to the lender's security interest.

Failure of repayment

      If the borrower does not make payment after the secured loan has fallen due, the lender may pursue two different courses. He may enforce his claim for repayment before the courts just as any other creditor or he may enforce his preferred position as a secured lender. The rules to be followed in enforcing a security interest differ considerably from country to country and even within a country according to the type of security interest involved. Very often the lender must sell the charged goods by public sale; occasionally he is permitted to acquire the charged goods himself. If the proceeds of a sale exceed the amount of the secured loan, the surplus must be paid to the borrower, whereas the borrower remains liable for any deficit. All legal systems frown upon clauses that permit a lender to acquire the charged goods automatically on the borrower's failure to pay.

      The rules on security interests are still strongly national in character. The need for unification has, except in a few specialized areas, not been very urgent. This is largely because, in the great bulk of international sales transactions, the seller, wherever necessary, may secure himself by insisting on payment by letter of credit. But of some international concern was the question of the protection of security interests in those means of transportation that move constantly from one country to another. Two international conventions on security interests in ships and aircraft have, therefore, been concluded. They do not provide uniform rules on security interests but merely guarantee that an interest validly created in one contracting state will be recognized in any other contracting state. The number of countries that have adopted these conventions is, however, limited.

Additional Reading

Historical treatments of the law of commercial transactions are provided by Wyndham Anstis Bewes, The Romance of the Law Merchant: Being an Introduction to the Study of International and Commercial Law, with Some Account of the Commerce and Fairs of the Middle Ages (1923, reprinted 1986); W. Mitchell, An Essay on the Early History of the Law Merchant (1904, reprinted 1969); and Frederick Rockwell Sanborn, Origins of the Early English Maritime and Commercial Law (1930). Additional resources include Frederick Wallach, Introduction to European Commercial Law (1953); George Kohlick (ed.), Digest of Commercial Laws of the World, rev. ed., 6 loose-leaf vol. (1975– ); Clive M. Schmitthoff, Schmitthoff's Export Trade: The Law and Practice of International Trade, 7th ed. (1980); Yvon Loussouarn and Jean-Denis Bredin, Droit du commerce international (1969); Gunnar Lagergren, Delivery of the Goods and Transfer of Property and Risk in the Law on Sale (1954); John O. Honnold, Uniform Law for International Sales Under the 1980 United Nations Convention (1980); Hessel E. Yntema, The Law of Negotiable Instruments (Bills of Exchange) in the Americas: An Analytical Statutory Concordance, rev. by Rodolfo Batiza, 2 vol. (1969); Thomas G. Carver, Carver's Carriage by Sea, 13th ed. by Raoul Colinvaux, 2 vol. (1982); Arnold W. Knauth, American Law of Ocean Bills of Lading, 4th ed. rev. and enlarged (1953); H.C. Gutteridge and Maurice Megrah, The Law of Bankers' Commercial Credits, 7th ed. (1984); A.G. Davis, The Law Relating to Commercial Letters of Credit, 3rd ed. (1963); and E.P. Ellinger, Documentary Letters of Credit (1970).Ulrich M. Drobnig

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