Burckhardt, Jacob

▪ Swiss art historian

Introduction

Jacob Christopher also spelled  Jakob Christoph  

born May 25, 1818, Basel, Switz.

died Aug. 8, 1897, Basel

 one of the first great historians of art and culture, whose Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (1860; The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1878, reprinted 1945) became a model for the treatment of cultural history (history, philosophy of) in general.

Life.

      Burckhardt was the son of a Protestant clergyman. The thriving Burckhardt family was among the most respected in town. For three centuries some of its members had earned wealth in international trade and the manufacture of silk and with their wealth had gained political power, while others had served the community as professors and pastors. Basel's excellent grammar school provided Burckhardt with a humanistic education. His first studies at the University of Basel, supplemented by a stay in Neuchâtel, were dominated by a devotion to Greek. But, before the philological and increasingly historical orientation of his interests could fully assert itself, Burckhardt spent three years in the study of formal theology. Although he never regretted this concession to the professional traditions of his father and grandfather, Burckhardt took up divinity without a calling and after a prolonged crisis abandoned it, together with the explicit profession of Christian faith. Henceforth, he was always to avoid clarification of his religious position, which may be described as a kind of pantheism. Markedly romantic at first, in later years Burckhardt's religious ideas revealed their classical inspiration and, evincing a profound respect for human destiny, came to underlie his concept of history.

      From 1839 to 1843 Burckhardt studied at the University of Berlin, where his talents were acknowledged by two eminent teachers of ancient history, August Boeckh and Johann Gustav Droysen (Droysen, Johann Gustav). But it was under the influence of two other professors—Franz Kugler and Leopold von Ranke (Ranke, Leopold von)—that his appreciation of ancient and modern history came into balance in his efforts to comprehend the past as a whole. Art (arts, the) and architecture had fascinated Burckhardt from childhood. Now Franz Kugler provided a formal introduction to the fledgling discipline of art history, which profoundly appealed to the German Romantics. The achievements of painters and architects not only directed Burckhardt's attention toward Italy and the Renaissance; they also helped to reduce law, politics, and diplomacy to a somewhat inferior status in his concept of the past. At Berlin, Burckhardt's developing priorities accounted for an ambiguous relationship with the most famous among all his teachers, Leopold von Ranke. Ranke, the master of diplomatic history, assigned an autonomous and exalted function to statehood and nationhood and consequently cast his lot with Prussian and German nationalism, forces that Burckhardt would later denounce with growing violence. Since Ranke and Burckhardt are often used to illustrate diametrically different approaches to historiography, it is important to note that Burckhardt respected the scholarly achievements of his great teacher, and Ranke recognized and commended the ability of his student. Burckhardt was later offered a chair at Berlin, but he declined it.

      After two Berlin winters, Burckhardt spent a summer term at the young and modest University of Bonn, where he passed many of his most romantic and imaginative hours among the circle that met in the home of Gottfried Kinkel (Kinkel, Gottfried), a fellow art historian who had in the past, like Burckhardt, given up theology but would, unlike his Swiss friend, become a leader in the unsuccessful liberal revolution that erupted in Germany in 1848–49, by which time their friendship had cooled completely. Burckhardt's political creed is as hard to define as his religious one. The spirit of his hometown and upbringing was democratic, although tempered with patrician arrogance. His love of freedom was supreme, but he soon came to despise the aspirations of political liberalism in Switzerland and Germany. For Burckhardt 1848–49 was a turning point. Romantic indulgence and political hopes were now dead; his German friends were almost forgotten. With complete concentration he turned to his studies and his teaching. He was a conservative by now, but his conservatism was cultural rather than political. His own time was, he thought, hopelessly superficial. He felt increasingly out of touch with it and concentrated all his energies on reclaiming a past that seemed incomparably deeper and richer. Also in 1849, Margarethe Stehlin, the only woman for whom he ever seems to have had any deep affection, married a Basel banker. He suppressed his feelings without too much difficulty and never again considered marriage, stating that he had no wish to beget children “who would be tutored by a proletarian.”

      The University of Basel awarded Burckhardt the degree of Ph.D. in absentia, and after his return from Berlin in 1843 he was quickly authorized to give private lectures. Lecture he did, but for two years he had to earn his living as the editor of the Basler Zeitung, a conservative daily. In 1846–47 he returned to Berlin to prepare, in conjunction with his friend and teacher Kugler, substantially enlarged new editions of Kugler's two textbooks of art history. The winter of 1847–48 was spent in Rome. Thereafter he resumed his teaching at Basel. The university was small and, on the whole, undistinguished. Burckhardt's lectures, by far the largest component of his life's work and also the most accomplished, were normally delivered before a mere handful of students. Never did his academic audience reach 50; only when he addressed the Basel public at large, as he often did with series of evening lectures, was the attendance more substantial. In 1855 Burckhardt left Basel to teach art history at the newly founded Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, but in 1858 he returned to his home university and henceforward occupied Basel's only chair of history. For another 20 years, however, he also had to teach in his former grammar school. Only from 1874 could he divide his time evenly between his university lectures in history and art history. From 1886 until his retirement in 1893 he taught art history exclusively. In his courses he covered the entire range of European civilization from ancient Greece to the French Revolution.

      Burckhardt, who had learned Italian, in 1837 first crossed the southern frontier of his country, hiking all the way from Basel and back. In the following summer he returned for a month-long tour of northern and central Italy. Thereafter and until 1883, travel in Italy and elsewhere was a regular feature of Burckhardt's bachelor life.

Works.

      Burckhardt's most successful books are unthinkable without his familiarity with the historical sites and art treasures of Europe. His first important work, however, like the last, attested to his deep interest in ancient civilization. In Die Zeit Konstantins des Grossen (1853; The Age of Constantine the Great, 1949) Burckhardt presented a picture of a transitional age, unhealthy and immoral but teeming with religious and cultural activity. While he recognized that the rise of Christianity was inevitable and that it was necessary for the development of an original culture during the Middle Ages, his sympathies lay clearly with the waning forces of the ancient world. Der Cicerone (1855; The Cicerone, 1873) is a comprehensive study of Italian art, geographically arranged in the form of a travel guide. It went through many editions, but Burckhardt reacted to the popularity of his work with growing aloofness.

      Burckhardt's next book, Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (1860), is the major source of his fame. Using programmatic subheadings (the discovery of world and man; the development of individuality; the state as a work of art; the modern sense of humour), Burckhardt deftly analyzed the daily life of Renaissance Italy, its political climate, and the thought of its outstanding minds. His sources—often contemporary chronicles and tales—were in print and readily available yet frequently ignored by historians. He approached them with newly conceived questions in mind. Although Burckhardt emphasized many contrasts between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, he did not underrate medieval achievements. His concept of history left no room for the idea that the Renaissance or any other period was characterized by general progress over the preceding epoch. If Raphael's art presented the Renaissance at its best, the ingenious and ruthless mechanism of Renaissance politics reminded Burckhardt of “the works of a clock.” Here he perceived the beginnings of the modern state, a precision instrument of mass control, without consideration for the creative freedom of individuals and minorities.

      Art was to Burckhardt the saving grace of the Renaissance, but in his Die Kultur this vital subject was not treated. Burckhardt hoped to cover it in a separate monograph, but that hope found only partial fulfillment in Die Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien (1867; “History of the Renaissance in Italy”), which deals with architecture only. If eventually Burckhardt's study of the Renaissance provided a basic model for the treatment of cultural history in general, the implications for art history were best realized by his pupil and successor, Heinrich Wölfflin. Styles of art followed one another as did historical periods. They were determined by common features derived from the general character of a period and in turn helped to define the period's culture. Among Burckhardt's minor publications, a small but precious collection of poetry in the Alemannic dialect may be noted: E Hämpfeli Lieder (1853; “The Jumping Jack Songs”).

      Friends edited his last great work, four volumes of an uncompleted survey of Greek civilization—Griechische Kulturgeschichte (1898–1902; abridgment in Eng. trans., History of Greek Culture, 1963)—and some essays in art history: Erinnerungen aus Rubens (1898; “Suggestions on Rubens”), Beiträge zur Kunstgeschichte von Italien (1898; “Contributions to the Art History of Italy”). Of particular significance are two later posthumous publications. Weltgeschichtliche Betrachtungen (1905; Force and Freedom: Reflections on History, 1943) epitomizes his philosophy of history. Historische Fragmente (“Historical Fragments,” 1929 in Gesamtausgabe; Judgments on History and Historians, 1958) selects highlights from his lecture manuscripts and demonstrates impressively Burckhardt's gift for visualizing history as a whole. Both books contain passages that can be interpreted as prophetic visions of the violent totalitarian states of the 20th century; but more important than Burckhardt's prophecies of the future is his vision of the past, which offers, he said, “experience to make us, not shrewder (for the next time), but wiser (for ever).”

Peter G. Bietenholz

Additional Reading

A critical edition of Burckhardt's collected works, Gesamtausgabe, 14 vol., ed. by E. Durr et al. (1929–34), is now being followed by a critical edition of his letters, Briefe, ed. by Max Burckhardt, 8 of a projected 10 vol. (1949–74). See also Werner Kaegi, Jacob Burckhardt, eine Biographie, 4 vol. (1947–67); Wallace K. Ferguson, The Renaissance in Historical Thought (1948); and Jacob Burckhardt and the Renaissance, 100 Years After (1960), papers read at a meeting of the Central Renaissance Conference.

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