Apple Inc.

▪ American company

Introduction

formerly  Apple Computer, Inc. 

 American manufacturer of personal computers, computer peripherals, and computer software. It was the first successful personal computer company and the popularizer of the graphical user interface. Headquarters are located in Cupertino, California.

Garage start-up

   Apple, Inc., had its genesis in the lifelong dream of Stephen G. Wozniak (Wozniak, Stephen Gary) to build his own computer—a dream that was made suddenly feasible with the arrival in 1975 of the first commercially successful microcomputer, the Altair 8800, which came as a kit and used the recently invented microprocessor chip. Encouraged by his friends at the Homebrew Computer Club, a San Francisco Bay area group centred around the Altair, Wozniak quickly came up with a plan for his own microcomputer. In 1976, when the Hewlett-Packard Company, where Wozniak was an engineering intern, expressed no interest in his design, Wozniak, then 26 years old, together with a former high-school classmate, 21-year-old Steven P. Jobs (Jobs, Steven P.), moved production operations to the Jobs family garage—and the Silicon Valley garage start-up company legend was born. Jobs and Wozniak named their company Apple. For working capital, Jobs sold his Volkswagen minibus and Wozniak his programmable calculator. Their first model was simply a working circuit board, but at Jobs's insistence the 1977 version was a stand-alone machine in a custom-molded plastic case, in contrast to the forbidding steel boxes of other early machines. This Apple II also offered a colour display and other features that made Wozniak's creation the first microcomputer that appealed to the average person.

Commercial success

      Though he was a brash business novice whose appearance still bore traces of his hippie past, Jobs understood that in order for the company to grow, it would require professional management and substantial funding. He convinced Regis McKenna, a well-known public relations specialist for the semiconductor industry, to represent the company; he also secured an investment from Michael Markkula, a wealthy veteran of the Intel Corporation who became Apple's largest shareholder and an influential member of Apple's board of directors. The company became an instant success, particularly after Wozniak's 1978 invention of a low-cost hard disk drive made information storage and retrieval fast and reliable. With room to store and manipulate data, the Apple II became the computer of choice for legions of amateur programmers. Most notably, in 1979 two Bostonians—Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston—introduced the first personal computer spreadsheet, VisiCalc, creating what would later be known as a “killer app” (application): a software program so useful that it propels hardware sales.

      While VisiCalc opened up the small-business and consumer market for the Apple II, another important early market was primary educational institutions. By a combination of aggressive discounts and donations (and an absence of any early competition), Apple established a commanding presence among educational institutions, contributing to its platform's dominance of primary-school software well into the 1990s.

Competition from IBM

      Apple's profits and size grew at a historic rate: by 1980 the company netted over $100 million and had more than 1,000 employees. Its public offering in December was the biggest since 1956, when the Ford Motor Company had gone public. (Indeed, by the end of 1980, Apple's valuation of nearly $2 billion was greater than Ford's.) However, Apple would soon face competition from the computer industry's leading player, International Business Machines Corporation. IBM had waited for the personal computer market to grow before introducing its own line of personal computers, the IBM PC, in 1981. IBM broke with its tradition of using only proprietary hardware components and software and built a machine from readily available components, including the Intel microprocessor, and used DOS (disk operating system) from the Microsoft Corporation. Because other manufacturers could use the same hardware components that IBM used, as well as license DOS from Microsoft, new software developers could count on a wide IBM PC-compatible market for their software. Soon the new system had its own killer app: the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet, which won an instant constituency in the business community—a market that the Apple II had failed to penetrate.

Macintosh and the first affordable GUI

 Apple had its own plan to regain leadership: a sophisticated new generation of computers that would be dramatically easier to use. In 1979 Jobs had led a team of engineers to see the innovations created at the Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto (California) Research Center (PARC). There they were shown the first functional graphical user interface (GUI), featuring on-screen windows, a pointing device known as a mouse, and the use of icons, or pictures, to replace the awkward protocols required by all other computers. Apple immediately incorporated these ideas into two new computers: Lisa, released in 1983, and the lower-cost Macintosh, released in 1984. Jobs himself took over the latter project, insisting that the computer should be not merely great but “insanely great.” The result was a revelation—perfectly in tune with the unconventional, science-fiction-esque television commercial that introduced the Macintosh during the broadcast of the 1984 Super Bowl—a $2,500 computer unlike any that preceded it.

Desktop publishing revolution

      Despite an ecstatic reaction from the media, the Macintosh initially sold below Apple's expectations. Critics noted that the Mac, as it came to be known, had insufficient memory and storage and lacked standard amenities such as cursor keys and a colour display. (Many skeptics also doubted that adults would ever want to use a machine that relied on the GUI, condemning it as “toylike” and wasteful of computational resources.) In the wake of the poor sales performance, Jobs was ousted from the company in September 1985 by its chief executive officer (CEO), John Sculley. (Wozniak had left Apple in February 1985 to become a teacher.) Under Sculley, Apple steadily improved the machine. However, what saved the Mac in those early years was Apple's 1985 introduction of an affordable laser printer along with Aldus Corporation's PageMaker, the Mac's first killer app. Together these two innovations launched the desktop publishing revolution. Suddenly, small businesses and print shops could produce professional-looking brochures, pamphlets, and letters without having to resort to expensive lithographic processes. The graphic arts and publishing industries quickly became the Mac's single most important market.

      Another innovation was a software database called HyperCard, which Apple included free with every Macintosh starting in 1987. Using a technique called hyperlinking, this program, written by Bill Atkinson, was employed by many teachers to organize multimedia elements for classroom presentations—an idea that anticipated the HyperText Markup Language (hypertext) (HTML) underpinnings of the World Wide Web.

Apple litigates while PCs innovate

      This was a golden age for Apple; the company's revenues approached $10 billion, and it sold more than a million computers a year. Still, Apple's profits obscured the fact that its share of the market was falling, despite the technological superiority of its products. The Mac's incompatibility with Apple II software, a problem initially ignored, slowed educational sales and compelled the retention of the outmoded Apple II line through 1993. Consumer sales suffered as the company discouraged game development out of fear that the Mac would not be taken seriously in the business community. Moreover, Microsoft (Microsoft Corporation), after an unsuccessful attempt to secure an agreement to market the Mac OS on the Intel processor, introduced Windows (Windows OS), its own graphical operating system. Apple litigated for years, in vain, to stop Microsoft from copying the “look and feel” of its operating system, though the Mac OS itself drew upon the PARC GUI. Meanwhile, as successive versions of Windows were improved and as competition among multiple PC manufacturers led to greater innovation and lower prices, fewer people were willing to pay the premiums that Apple had been able to command owing to its reputation for quality.

Apple–IBM rapprochement

      In a rather surprising development, Apple and IBM (International Business Machines Corporation) announced an alliance in 1991. In addition to signing a technology agreement with Motorola, Inc., to develop a next-generation RISC (reduced-instruction-set computing) chip, known as the PowerPC, Apple and IBM created two new software companies, Taligent, Inc., and Kaleida Labs, Inc., for the development of operating system software. Taligent was expected to enable versions of both the Mac OS and the IBM OS/2 to run on a new computer hardware standard, the common hardware reference platform (CHRP), and Kaleida Labs was to develop multimedia software. However, as Apple and IBM began to quarrel over CHRP's engineering specifications and as costs mounted to approximately $400 million for Taligent and $200 million for Kaleida Labs, Apple pulled out with little to show for its investment.

Newton and Claris

      Sculley also promised more than Apple could deliver with Newton, a personal digital assistant that suffered from poor handwriting recognition and that diverted company engineering and financial resources. In addition, the company vacillated over Claris Corporation, its software division, first reorganizing it as an independent company and then reabsorbing it when it began shifting more resources to Windows software.

Apple continues to flounder

      Sculley was replaced by Michael Spindler in 1993. Spindler's most notable achievements as CEO were the successful migration of the Mac OS to the PowerPC microprocessor and the initiation of a shift away from Apple's proprietary standards. Nevertheless, Apple struggled with marketing projections, accumulating large unsalable inventories of some models while simultaneously being unable to meet a billion dollars in orders for other models. Combined with drastic quality control problems, notably a defective line of monitors and some highly publicized combustible portable computers, these failings brought an end to Spindler's reign in early 1996 with the appointment of Gilbert F. Amelio.

The return of Jobs

      Apple cut operating costs and reestablished quality controls, but by that time only a small percentage of new computer buyers were choosing Macs over machines running Windows, and Apple's financial situation was dire. In December 1996, in order to secure a replacement for the Mac's aging operating system following the collapse of CHRP and the company's protracted inability to produce one internally, Apple purchased NeXT Software, Inc., the company formed by Jobs after his 1985 departure. Jobs himself was retained as an advisor to the CEO, but he quickly became disenchanted and sold all but one share of the Apple stock he had received in the NeXT sale. When Apple failed to become profitable under Amelio and its worldwide market share fell to roughly 3 percent, the board of directors, in mid-1997, recruited a surprising temporary replacement: Jobs, for the first time the undisputed leader of the company he cofounded.

Apple refocuses on key markets

 Jobs set about revitalizing the company. He quickly announced an alliance with erstwhile foe Microsoft; ended a half-hearted (and profit-draining) program to license the Mac OS; streamlined what had become a confusing product line to focus on the company's traditional markets of education, publishing, and consumers; and helped oversee the introduction of more affordable computers, notably the distinctively designed all-in-one iMac.

 Before the introduction of the iMac in 1998, all Macs were built with a special read-only memory (ROM) chip that contained part of Apple's operating system and enabled the Mac OS to run only on particular machines. The new machine, based in part on the scuttled CHRP design, with PC-standard memory and peripheral interface, was a continuation of Apple's shift away from hardware-specific, or proprietary, standards. With built-in high-speed networking capabilities, the iMac was designed to revive Apple's consumer and educational market sales.

      The iMac quickly became the all-time best-selling Mac and lifted Apple's U.S. market share from a record low of 2.6 percent in December 1997 to roughly 13.5 percent in August 1998. Moreover, Apple had a profitable fiscal year in 1998, its first since 1995.

 In 2001 Apple introduced iTunes, a computer program for playing music and for converting music to the compact MP3 digital format commonly used in computers and other digital devices. Later the same year, Apple began selling the iPod, a portable MP3 player, which quickly became the market leader (the term podcasting, combining iPod and broadcasting, is used as both a noun and a verb to refer to audio or video material downloaded for portable or delayed playback). Later models added larger storage capacities or smaller sizes, colour screens, and video playback features. In 2003 Apple began selling downloadable copies of major record company songs in MP3 format over the Internet. By 2006 more than one billion songs and videos had been sold through Apple's Web site.

 In 2007 Apple introduced the touch-screen iPhone, a cellular telephone with capabilities for playing MP3s and videos and for accessing the Internet. The first models were only available in conjunction with AT&T's wireless service and could not be used over the latest third-generation (3G) wireless networks. Apple rectified the latter limitation in 2008 with the release of the iPhone 3G, or iPhone 2.0, which also included support for the global positioning system (GPS) (GPS). Like other “smartphones” such as the BlackBerry, from the Canadian company Research in Motion, the new iPhone included features geared toward business users. In particular, the storage memory in the units could be remotely “wiped” if the unit were lost.

Steven Levy

Additional Reading

Frank Rose, West of Eden: The End of Innocence at Apple Computer (1989), contains a great deal of anecdotal information about Apple, particularly during John Sculley's stewardship.Steven Levy, Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer that Changed Everything (1994), is a breezy account of the creation of the Macintosh computer and the development of the graphical user interface.Jim Carleton, Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders (1997), is an exposé of the business and engineering mistakes that nearly bankrupted Apple during the late 1980s and early 1990s.

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