hijacking

Crime of seizing possession or control of a vehicle from another by force or threat of force.

Although by the late 20th century hijacking most frequently involved the seizure of an airplane and its forcible diversion to destinations chosen by the air pirates, when the term was coined in the 1920s hijacking generally referred to in-transit thefts of truckloads of illegally manufactured liquor or to the similar seizure of rumrunners at sea. Airplane hijacking also is known as skyjacking. The first reported case of such hijacking occurred in Peru in 1931. Between 1968 and 1970 alone there were nearly 200 hijackings. The participants often were politically motivated Palestinians or other Arabs who commandeered airplanes while in flight and threatened harm to the passengers and crew unless certain of their comrades were released from jail in Israel or some other location. Air hijackings continued in the 1980s and '90s, though new airport security measures and international agreements on terrorism probably deterred many more. The deadliest act of air piracy to date occurred on Sept. 11, 2001 (see September 11 attacks), when suicide terrorists simultaneously hijacked four airliners in the U.S. and flew two of them into the World Trade Center complex in New York City and one into the Pentagon near Washington, D.C.; the fourth crashed outside Pittsburgh, Pa. The crashes killed all 245 passengers (and 19 hijackers) aboard the airplanes and some 3,000 people in the buildings and on the ground. See also piracy; terrorism.

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▪ international law

also spelled  highjacking 

      the illegal seizure of a land vehicle, aircraft, or other conveyance while it is in transit.

      Although since the late 20th century hijacking most frequently involved the seizure of an airplane and its forcible diversion to destinations chosen by the air pirates, when the term was coined in the 1920s in the United States hijacking generally referred to in-transit thefts of truckloads of illegally manufactured liquor or to the similar seizure of rumrunners at sea. By the mid 1950s, use of the term had been broadened to encompass the hijacking of trucks carrying legitimate cargo, as well as the hijacking of legal ships.

      Airplane hijacking is also known as skyjacking. The first reported case of such hijacking occurred in Peru in 1931. The first aerial hijacking in Asia occurred in 1948 on a flight bound from Macau to Hong Kong; all 25 people aboard were killed when the airplane crashed into the Pacific Ocean. During the next decade about 15 airplanes were hijacked, and in 1958–67 the number of such incidents increased dramatically to about 50.

      The first aerial hijacking within the United States occurred on May 1, 1961, when a commercial airliner en route from Miami to Key West, Florida, was forced to detour to Cuba. By the end of 1961, four airplanes had been hijacked to Cuba, and many of the airplanes subsequently hijacked in the United States and elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere were flown to Cuba by either homesick Cubans or politically motivated leftists. Some of these hijackings were financially motivated, with the hijackers calling for huge ransom payments in exchange for ensuring the safety of the passengers and crew, though few were successful.

      A more dangerous and destructive spate of hijackings occurred in Europe and the Middle East from 1968 onward. Between 1968 and 1970 alone there were nearly 200 hijackings. The participants often were politically motivated Palestinians or other Arabs who commandeered airplanes while in flight and threatened harm to the passengers and crew unless certain of their comrades were released from jail in Israel or some other location. Some of these hijackers also held the passengers and crew captive and demanded large ransom payments from the hostages' governments. The climax of this new form of terrorism occurred in September 1970, when an 11-day sequence of hijackings resulted in 300 passengers being held hostage for a week and the destruction of four jet aircraft (on the ground) worth a total of $50 million. Middle Eastern and leftist hijackers abducted, confined, and even occasionally murdered individuals traveling on airplanes that were diverted from scheduled routes.

      Beginning as early as 1963, the United Nations urged member states to sign an international convention against hijackers. Seven years later 50 countries signed a convention for the suppression of unlawful seizure of aircraft, specifically designating that the unlawful seizure of an aircraft in flight through force, the threat of force, or intimidation was an extraditable offense in any extradition treaty between the signatories. A further international agreement to apprehend, extradite, and punish hijackers was difficult to obtain, however, because several governments, particularly those in the Middle East, were overtly or secretly involved in hijackings or regarded hijacking as a “political offense” and granted hijackers immunity from prosecution and extradition.

      In 1973 the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration instituted systematic searches of airline passengers and hand luggage. A magnetometer, an electronic device that could detect metal objects, was used to check passengers for weapons. Carry-on baggage and other belongings of passengers were searched by hand or by low-pulse X-ray machines. Local armed guards were stationed at search points and other airport locations such as departure gates. Many other countries, mostly in Europe, adopted similar measures in their airports. Critical in deterring hijackers was the likelihood that countries targeted by terrorist groups would strike back, perhaps by launching commando raids to rescue hostages or by mounting direct assaults on the headquarters of the groups themselves. For example, in 1976, in an operation that became known as the Entebbe raid, Israel rescued 103 mostly Israeli hostages aboard a French aircraft that had been hijacked to Entebbe, Uganda.

      In 1978, at a Group of Seven summit meeting in Bonn, West Germany, the United States, Italy, Canada, Japan, Great Britain, France, and West Germany pledged to institute sanctions against countries that gave sanctuary to hijackers. In that same year the European Community (EC) agreed to boycott the airline of any country that either harboured hijackers or refused to release hijacked aircraft. The threat of being denied landing rights in EC countries' airports proved effective, and several Middle Eastern countries that had previously provided sanctuary for hijackers and hijacked aircraft ceased to do so.

      Hijackings have continued to occur sporadically since the late 1970s, though at a reduced frequency. One such notorious incident was the 17-day hijacking of a flight to Beirut airport by Hezbollah, a militant group associated with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (Khomeini, Ruhollah), in 1985. Nonaerial hijackings have included the commandeering of an Italian cruise ship by Palestinian terrorists in 1985 and the seizing of trains by South Moluccans in The Netherlands in 1975 and 1977.

      The decline in hijackings was the result of a variety of factors, including heightened security and greater international cooperation. Some groups, such as the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)—which had applauded earlier hijackings—found that hijacking had outlived its usefulness. In addition, in the 1980s some militant groups turned to the far more devastating tactic of destroying airplanes in flight, usually by bombs. One infamous incident was the downing of an American airliner by Libyan intelligence agents over Lockerbie, Scotland, in 1988; the midair explosion killed 259 passengers and 11 people on the ground.

      The deadliest act of air piracy to date occurred on September 11, 2001, when suicide terrorists simultaneously hijacked four airliners in the United States and flew two of them into the World Trade Center complex in New York City and one into the Pentagon near Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed outside Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, after passengers—apprised of their fate via cellular telephone—attempted to overtake their attackers. Overall, more than 3,000 people were killed in the September 11 attacks, and a new factor was introduced: the use of fuel-laden planes as flying bombs to kill large numbers of people and cause enormous property damage. However, the actions of the passengers on the fourth plane suggested that such a tactic would be difficult to repeat, as the prospect of certain death would give hostages little incentive to submit to hijackers' demands.

John Philip Jenkins Ed.

Additional Reading

Yonah Alexander and Eugene Sochor (eds.), Aerial Piracy and Aviation Security (1990), emphasizes the importance of security measures in ensuring air safety. Paul Wilkinson and Brian M. Jenkins (eds.), Aviation Terrorism and Security (1999), integrates an examination of practical security with political analysis. Adrian Guelke, The Age of Terrorism and the International Political System (1995, reissued 1998), examines global terrorism and places air terrorism in a wider context.

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