Darwin, Erasmus

born Dec. 12, 1731, Elston Hall, Nottinghamshire, Eng.

died April 18, 1802, Derby, Derbyshire

British physician, grandfather of Charles Darwin and Francis Galton.

A freethinker and radical, Darwin often wrote his opinions and scientific treatises in verse. In Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life (1794–96), he advanced a theory of evolution similar to that of Lamarck, suggesting that species modified themselves by adapting to their environment in an intentional way. His conclusions, drawn from simple observation, were rejected by the more sophisticated 19th-century scientists, including his grandson Charles.

Erasmus Darwin, detail of an oil painting by Joseph Wright, 1770; in the National Portrait Gallery, ...

By courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

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▪ British physician

Introduction

born Dec. 12, 1731, Elston Hall, Nottinghamshire, Eng.

died April 18, 1802, Breadsall Priory, Derby, Derbyshire

 British physician, poet, and botanist noted for his republican politics and materialistic theory of evolution. Although today he is best known as the grandfather of naturalist Charles Darwin (Darwin, Charles) and of biologist Sir Francis Galton (Galton, Sir Francis), Erasmus Darwin was an important figure of the Enlightenment in his own right.

Education and early interests

      The son of a Nottingham lawyer, Darwin studied classics and mathematics at St. John's College, Cambridge (Cambridge, University of), and then engaged in three years of medical training at the University of Edinburgh (Edinburgh, University of). He moved to Lichfield, Staffordshire, in 1756, where he ran a flourishing medical practice and was elected a fellow of the Royal Society (1761). His first wife, Mary Howard, died in 1770, leaving three surviving sons, two of whom subsequently died. But the youngest, physician Robert Waring Darwin, married the daughter of Darwin's close friend, English craftsman and scientific entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood (Wedgwood, Josiah). The young couple's fifth son was Charles Darwin, who would later write the influential work On the Origin of Species (1859). In the early 1770s Erasmus Darwin had two illegitimate daughters with Robert's governess, Mary Parker. In 1781 Erasmus married a young widow, Elizabeth Pole, who insisted that he move to her home in Derby, where he started writing scientific poetry and textbooks. Together they had seven children; their eldest daughter was the mother of Francis Galton, who in the late 19th century would found the science of eugenics.

      Darwin's major early interests were medicine and invention, but in the late 1770s he became fascinated by botany. He translated textbooks and composed “The Loves of the Plants” (1789), which mainly comprises elaborate footnoted verses extolling Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (Linnaeus, Carolus)'s taxonomic system. An immediate success, this erotic dramatization was later republished as the sequel to a poem called “The Economy of Vegetation” (1791) in the two-part The Botanic Garden (1791). A related poetic work, “The Temple of Nature” (1803), appeared posthumously. Both this latter work and The Botanic Garden were strikingly illustrated by William Blake (Blake, William) and Henry Fuseli (Fuseli, Henry).

Influence and later works

      The overriding characteristic of Darwin's work is his commitment to progress. As a member of the Lunar Society, an informal yet influential group of scientific entrepreneurs involved in Britain's early industrialization, Darwin encountered and influenced reformers keen to improve society through science, industry, education, and political change. As well as inventing windmills, carriages, and other mechanical devices, Darwin helped to transform British manufacturing by promoting canal systems and the use of steam power. He invested in development projects and celebrated in flamboyant heroic couplets the technological innovations of factory owners, such as Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton (Boulton, Matthew), and Thomas Arkwright. Similarly, Darwin sought progress through introducing scientific techniques into agriculture (agriculture, origins of). In Phytologia (1800) his recommendations included chemical fertilizers (fertilizer) and other innovations for ripening seeds, enlarging fruit, and improving timber characteristics.

      Medical historians celebrate Darwin for his Zoonomia (or The Laws of Organic Life; 1794–96), an ambitious two-volume work aiming to classify facts about animals (animal), to set out laws describing organic life, and to catalog diseases with their treatments. Unlike some contemporary physicians, Darwin endorsed active intervention with drugs (drug) and mechanical apparatus; some historians trace modern psychosomatic therapeutic approaches to his insistence on integrating mind (mind, philosophy of) and body. However, antievolutionists objected to Zoonomia's rejection of biblical chronology and still more strongly to Darwin's materialist suggestion

that in the great length of time, since the earth began to exist…would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament…possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down those improvements by generation to its posterity.

      Darwin also sought social reform. Aiming to improve girls' education, he helped his two illegitimate daughters run a boarding school and published the influential work A Plan for the Conduct of Female Education (1797). Openly aligning himself with British author Thomas Day and other political radicals who supported the French Revolution and campaigned for the abolition of slavery, Darwin attracted hostility from British antirepublicans. In particular, an extended satire on the possibilities of progress and human evolution that was published in the political journal The Anti-Jacobin prompted Darwin to delay and revise what became “The Temple of Nature.” Subtitled “The Origin of Society,” this final work brought together and expanded the evolutionary ideas that Darwin had been gradually developing throughout his life. Supported by exceptionally long notes, this four-part poem presents human achievements as the culmination of nature's innate progressive forces. In Darwin's optimistic vision, virtue and reason triumph in the constant battle against the death and destruction necessary to prevent explosive growth.

Lasting reputation

      Energetic and sociable, a corpulent teetotaler with a stammer, Darwin engaged in diverse activities, and his reputation varied during his lifetime as well as after his death. Friends and patients welcomed his sympathetic benevolence, but critics accused Darwin of forcefully imposing his views and of encouraging religious skepticism. His work initially enjoyed great success but fell out of favour because of his unorthodox views on evolution and the ornate didacticism of his poetry. Today he is the subject of increasing historical interest and has been variously reconfigured as the true forefather of evolutionary theory, as an exploitative industrial capitalist, as a major influencer of Romantic literature, and as a prescient inventor whose insights included the steering system used in cars.

      Despite Darwin's subsequent eclipse, research has made it clear how extensively he influenced his contemporaries and successors. Most famously, British writers Percy Bysshe Shelley (Shelley, Percy Bysshe) and Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft) commented on his importance for Mary's novel Frankenstein, and Charles Darwin studied the elder Darwin's work closely. Although a description of the world as “one great slaughterhouse, one universal scene of rapacity and injustice” might seem a fitting image for competitive natural selection, it was created not by Charles Darwin but by his grandfather, Erasmus.

Patricia Fara

Additional Reading

Desmond King-Hele, Erasmus Darwin: A Life of Unequalled Achievement (1999), is one in a series of books by an author who has energetically campaigned to restore Erasmus Darwin's reputation. Maureen McNeil, Under the Banner of Science: Erasmus Darwin and His Age (1987), is a sociologist's Marxist-inspired interpretation of Darwin as a capitalist industrialist; this is an accessible scholarly analysis based on solid research. C.U.M. Smith and Robert Arnott (eds.), The Genius of Erasmus Darwin (2005), is a varied collection of papers originating from a commemorative conference. Jennifer Uglow, The Lunar Men: The Friends Who Made the Future (2002), is an inspired and vivid collective biography in which Darwin features as one member of the Lunar Society.Patricia Fara

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