integrated circuit

Electronics.

a circuit of transistors, resistors, and capacitors constructed on a single semiconductor wafer or chip, in which the components are interconnected to perform a given function. Abbr.: IC Also called microcircuit.

[1955-60]

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▪ electronics

Introduction

also called  microelectronic circuit  or  chip 

      an assembly of electronic components, fabricated as a single unit, in which miniaturized active devices (e.g., transistors and diodes) and passive devices (e.g., capacitor (capacitance)s and resistors) and their interconnections are built up on a thin substrate of semiconductor material (typically silicon). The resulting circuit is thus a small monolithic “chip,” which may be as small as a few square centimetres or only a few square millimetres. The individual circuit components are generally microscopic in size.

      Integrated circuits have their origin in the invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B. Shockley (Shockley, William B.) and his team at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company's Bell Laboratories. Shockley's team (including John Bardeen (Bardeen, John) and Walter H. Brattain (Brattain, Walter H.)) found that, under the right circumstances, electrons would form a barrier at the surface of certain crystals, and they learned to control the flow of electricity through the crystal by manipulating this barrier. Controlling electron flow through a crystal allowed the team to create a device that could perform certain electrical operations, such as signal amplification, that were previously done by vacuum tubes. They named this device a transistor, from a combination of the words transfer and resistor. The study of methods of creating electronic devices using solid materials became known as solid-state electronics. Solid-state devices (solid-state device) proved to be much sturdier, easier to work with, more reliable, much smaller, and less expensive than vacuum tubes. Using the same principles and materials, engineers soon learned to create other electrical components, such as resistors and capacitors. Now that electrical devices could be made so small, the largest part of a circuit was the awkward wiring between the devices.

      In 1958 Jack Kilby (Kilby, Jack) of Texas Instruments, Inc. (Texas Instruments Incorporated), and Robert Noyce (Noyce, Robert) of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation independently thought of a way to reduce circuit size further. They laid very thin paths of metal (usually aluminum or copper) directly on the same piece of material as their devices. These small paths acted as wires. With this technique an entire circuit could be “integrated” on a single piece of solid material and an integrated circuit (IC) thus created. ICs can contain hundreds of thousands of individual transistors on a single piece of material the size of a pea. Working with that many vacuum tubes would have been unrealistically awkward and expensive. The invention of the integrated circuit made technologies of the Information Age feasible. ICs are now used extensively in all walks of life, from cars to toasters to amusement park rides.

Basic IC types

Analog versus digital circuits

      Analog, or linear, circuits typically use only a few components and are thus some of the simplest types of ICs. Generally, analog circuits are connected to devices that collect signals from the environment or send signals back to the environment. For example, a microphone converts fluctuating vocal sounds into an electrical signal of varying voltage. An analog circuit then modifies the signal in some useful way—such as amplifying it or filtering it of undesirable noise. Such a signal might then be fed back to a loudspeaker, which would reproduce the tones originally picked up by the microphone. Another typical use for an analog circuit is to control some device in response to continual changes in the environment. For example, a temperature sensor sends a varying signal to a thermostat, which can be programmed to turn an air conditioner, heater, or oven on and off once the signal has reached a certain value.

 A digital circuit, on the other hand, is designed to accept only voltages of specific given values. A circuit that uses only two states is known as a binary circuit. Circuit design with binary quantities, “on” and “off” representing 1 and 0 (i.e., true and false), uses the logic of Boolean algebra. The three basic logic functions—NOT, AND, and OR—together with their truth tables are given in the figure—>. (Arithmetic is also performed in the binary number system employing Boolean algebra.) These basic elements are combined in the design of ICs for digital computers and associated devices to perform the desired functions.

microprocessor circuits

      Microprocessors are the most complicated ICs. They are composed of millions of transistors that have been configured as thousands of individual digital circuits, each of which performs some specific logic function. A microprocessor is built entirely of these logic circuits synchronized to each other.

      Just like a marching band, the circuits perform their logic function only on direction by the bandmaster. The bandmaster in a microprocessor, so to speak, is called the clock. The clock is a signal that quickly alternates between two logic states. Every time the clock changes state, every logic circuit in the microprocessor does something. Calculations can be made very quickly, depending on the speed (“clock frequency”) of the microprocessor.

      Microprocessors contain some circuits, known as registers, that store information. Registers are predetermined memory locations. Each processor has many different types of registers. Permanent registers are used to store the preprogrammed instructions required for various operations (such as addition and multiplication). Temporary registers store numbers that are to be operated on and also the result. Other examples of registers include the “program counter,” the “stack pointer,” and the “address” register.

      Microprocessors can perform millions of operations per second on data. In addition to computers, microprocessors are common in video game systems, televisions, cameras, and automobiles.

Memory (computer memory) circuits

      Microprocessors typically have to store more data than can be held in a few registers. This additional information is relocated to special memory circuits. Memory is composed of dense arrays of parallel circuits that use their voltage states to store information. Memory also stores the temporary sequence of instructions, or program, for the microprocessor.

      Manufacturers continually strive to reduce the size of memory circuits—to increase capability without increasing space. In addition, smaller components typically use less power, operate more efficiently, and cost less to manufacture.

Digital signal processors

      A signal is an analog waveform—anything in the environment that can be captured electronically. A digital signal is an analog waveform that has been converted into a series of binary numbers for quick manipulation. As the name implies, a digital signal processor (DSP) processes signals digitally, as patterns of 1s and 0s. For instance, using an analog-to-digital converter, commonly called an A-to-D or A/D converter, a recording of someone's voice can be converted into digital 1s and 0s. The digital representation of the voice can then be modified by a DSP using complex mathematical formulas. For example, the DSP algorithm in the circuit may be configured to recognize gaps between spoken words as background noise and digitally remove ambient noise from the waveform. Finally, the processed signal can be converted back (by a D/A converter) into an analog signal for listening. Digital processing can filter out background noise so fast that there is no discernible delay and the signal appears to be heard in “real time.” For instance, such processing enables “live” television broadcasts to focus on a quarterback's signals in an American gridiron football game.

      DSPs are also used to produce digital effects on live television. For example, the yellow marker lines displayed during the football game are not really on the field; a DSP adds the lines after the cameras shoot the picture but before it is broadcast. Similarly, some of the advertisements seen on stadium fences and billboards during televised sporting events are not really there.

Application-specific ICs

      An application-specific IC (ASIC) can be either a digital or an analog circuit. As their name implies, ASICs are not reconfigurable; they perform only one specific function. For example, a speed controller IC for a remote control car is hard-wired to do one job and could never become a microprocessor. An ASIC does not contain any ability to follow alternate instructions.

Radio-frequency ICs

      Radio-frequency ICs (RFICs) are rapidly gaining importance in cellular telephones and pagers. RFICs are analog circuits that usually run in the frequency range of 900 MHz to 2.4 GHz (900 million hertz to 2.4 billion hertz). They are usually thought of as ASICs even though some may be configurable for several similar applications.

      Most semiconductor circuits that operate above 500 MHz cause the electronic components and their connecting paths to interfere with each other in unusual ways. Engineers must use special design techniques to deal with the physics of high-frequency microelectronic interactions.

Microwave monolithic ICs

      A special type of RFIC is known as a microwave monolithic IC (MMIC). These circuits run in the 2.4- to 20-GHz range, or microwave frequencies, and are used in radar systems, in satellite communications, and as power amplifiers for cellular telephones.

      Just as sound travels faster through water than through air, electron velocity is different through each type of semiconductor material. Silicon offers too much resistance for microwave-frequency circuits, and so the compound gallium arsenide (GaAs) is often used for MMICs. Unfortunately, GaAs is mechanically much less sound than silicon. It breaks easily, so GaAs wafers are usually much more expensive to build than silicon wafers.

Basic semiconductor design

      Any material can be classified as one of three types: conductor, insulator, or semiconductor. A conductor (such as copper or salt water) can easily conduct electricity because it has an abundance of free electrons. An insulator (such as ceramic or dry air) conducts electricity very poorly because it has few or no free electrons. A semiconductor (such as silicon or gallium arsenide) is somewhere between a conductor and an insulator. It is capable of conducting some electricity, but not much.

Doping (dopant) silicon

      Most ICs are made of silicon, which is abundant in ordinary beach sand. Pure crystalline silicon, as with other semiconducting materials, has a very high resistance to electrical current at normal room temperature. However, with the addition of certain impurities, known as dopants, the silicon can be made to conduct usable currents. In particular, the doped silicon can be used as a switch, turning current off and on as desired.

 The process of introducing impurities is known as doping or implantation. Depending on a dopant's atomic structure, the result of implantation will be either an -type (negative) or a -type (positive) semiconductor. An n-type semiconductor results from implanting dopant atoms that have more electrons in their outer (bonding) shell than silicon, as shown in the figure—>. The resulting semiconductor crystal contains excess, or free, electrons that are available for conducting current. A p-type semiconductor results from implanting dopant atoms that have fewer electrons in their outer shell than silicon. The resulting crystal contains “holes (hole)” in its bonding structure where electrons would normally be located. In essence, such holes can move through the crystal conducting positive charges.

The junction (p-n junction)

  A p-type or an n-type semiconductor is not very useful on its own. However, joining these opposite materials creates what is called a p-n junction (see figure—>). A p-n junction forms a barrier to conduction between the materials. Although the electrons in the n-type material are attracted to the holes in the p-type material, the electrons are not normally energetic enough to overcome the intervening barrier. However, if additional energy is provided to the electrons in the n-type material, they will be capable of crossing the barrier into the p-type material—and current will flow. This additional energy can be supplied by applying a positive voltage to the p-type material, as shown in the figure—>. The negatively charged electrons will then be highly attracted to the positive voltage across the junction.

      A p-n junction that conducts electricity when energy is added to the n material is called forward-biased because the electrons move forward into the holes. If voltage is applied in the opposite direction—a positive voltage connected to the n side of the junction—no current will flow. The electrons in the n material will still be attracted to the positive voltage, but the voltage will now be on the same side of the barrier as the electrons. In this state a junction is said to be reverse-biased. Since p-n junctions conduct electricity in only one direction, they are a type of diode. Diodes are essential building blocks of semiconductor switches.

Field-effect transistors

 Bringing a negative voltage close to the centre of a long strip of n-type material will repel nearby electrons in the material and thus form holes—that is, transform some of the strip in the middle to p-type material. This change in polarity utilizing an electric field gives the field-effect transistor its name. (See animation—>.) While the voltage is being applied, there will exist two p-n junctions along the strip, from n to p and then from p back to n. One of the two junctions will always be reverse-biased. Since reverse-biased junctions cannot conduct, current cannot flow through the strip.

      The field effect can be used to create a switch (transistor) to turn current off and on, simply by applying and removing a small voltage nearby in order to create or destroy reverse-biased diodes in the material. A transistor created by using the field effect is called a field-effect transistor (FET). The location where the voltage is applied is known as a gate. The gate is separated from the transistor strip by a thin layer of insulation to prevent it from short-circuiting the flow of electrons through the semiconductor from an input (source) electrode to an output (drain) electrode.

      Similarly, a switch can be made by placing a positive gate voltage near a strip of p-type material. A positive voltage attracts electrons and thus forms a region of n within a strip of p. This again creates two p-n junctions, or diodes. As before, one of the diodes will always be reverse-biased and will stop current from flowing.

      FETs are good for building logic circuits because they require only a small current during switching. No current is required for holding the transistor in an on or off state; a voltage will maintain the state. This type of switching helps preserve battery life. A field-effect transistor is called unipolar (from “one polarity”) because the main conduction method is either holes or electrons, not both.

Enhancement mode FETs

      There are two basic types of field-effect transistors. The type described previously is a depletion mode FET, since a region is depleted of its natural charge. The field effect can also be used to create what is called an enhancement mode FET by enhancing a region to appear similar to its surrounding regions.

  An n-type enhancement mode FET is made from two regions of n-type material separated by a small region of p. As this FET naturally contains two p-n junctions—two diodes—it is normally switched off. However, when a positive voltage is placed on the gate, the voltage attracts electrons and creates n-type material in the middle region, filling the gap that was previously -type material, as shown in the animation—>. The gate voltage thus creates a continuous region of n across the entire strip, allowing current to flow from one side to the other. This turns the transistor on. Similarly, a p-type enhancement mode FET can be made from two regions of p-type material separated by a small region of n. The gate voltage required for turning on this transistor is negative. Enhancement mode FETs switch faster than depletion mode FETs because they require a change only near the surface under the gate, rather than all the way through the material, as shown in the figure—>.

Complementary metal-oxide semiconductors

 Recall that placing a positive voltage at the gate of an n-type enhanced mode FET will turn the switch on. Placing the same voltage at the gate of a p-type enhanced mode FET will turn the switch off. Likewise, placing a negative voltage at the gate will turn the n-type off and the p-type on. These FETs always respond in opposite, or complementary, fashion to a given gate voltage. Thus, if the gates of an n-type and a p-type FET are connected, as shown in the figure—>, any voltage applied to the common gate will operate the complementary pair, turning one on and leaving the other off. A semiconductor that pairs n- and p-type transistors this way is called a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS). Because complementary transistor pairs can quickly switch between two logic states, CMOSs are very useful in logic circuits. In particular, because only one circuit is on at any time, CMOSs require less power and are often used for battery-powered devices, such as in digital cameras, and for the special memory that holds the date, time, and system parameters in personal computers.

Bipolar transistors

 Bipolar transistors simultaneously use holes and electrons to conduct, hence their name (from “two polarities”). Like FETs, bipolar transistors contain p- and n-type materials configured in input, middle, and output regions. In bipolar transistors, however, these regions are referred to as the emitter, the base, and the collector. Instead of relying, as FETs do, on a secondary voltage source to change the polarity beneath the gate (the field effect), bipolar transistors use a secondary voltage source to provide enough energy for electrons to punch through the reverse-biased base-collector junction (see figure—>). As the electrons are energized, they jump into the collector and complete the circuit. Note that even with highly energetic electrons, the middle section of p-type material must be extremely thin for the electrons to pass through both junctions.

      A bipolar base region can be fabricated that is much smaller than any CMOS transistor gate. This smaller size enables bipolar transistors to operate much faster than CMOS transistors. Bipolar transistors are typically used in applications where speed is very important, such as in radio-frequency ICs. On the other hand, although bipolar transistors are faster, FETs use less current. The type of switch a designer selects depends on which benefits are more important for the application: speed or power savings. This is one of many trade-off decisions engineers make in designing their circuits.

Designing ICs

      All ICs use the same basic principles of voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R). In particular, equations based on Ohm's law, V = IR, determine many circuit design choices. Design engineers must also be familiar with the properties of various electronic components needed for different applications.

Analog design

      As mentioned earlier, an analog circuit takes an infinitely variable real-world voltage or current and modifies it in some useful way. The signal might be amplified, compared with another signal, mixed with other signals, separated from other signals, examined for value, or otherwise manipulated. For the design of this type of circuit, the choice of every individual component, size, placement, and connection is crucial. Unique decisions abound—for instance, whether one connection should be slightly wider than another connection, whether one resistor should be oriented parallel or perpendicular to another, or whether one wire can lie over the top of another. Every small detail affects the final performance of the end product.

      When integrated circuits were much simpler, component values could be calculated by hand. For instance, a specific amplification value (gain) of an amplifier could typically be calculated from the ratio of two specific resistors. The current in the circuit could then be determined, using the resistor value required for the amplifier gain and the supply voltage used. As designs became more complex, laboratory measurements were used to characterize the devices. Engineers drew graphs of device characteristics across several variables and then referred to those graphs as they needed information for their calculations. As scientists improved their characterization of the intricate physics of each device, they developed complex equations that took into account subtle effects that were not apparent from coarse laboratory measurements. For example, a transistor works very differently at different frequencies, sizes, orientations, and placements. In particular, scientists found parasitic components (unwanted effects, usually resistance and capacitance) that are inherent in the way the devices are built. Parasitics become more problematic as the circuitry becomes more sophisticated and smaller and as it runs at higher frequencies.

      Although parasitic components in a circuit can now be accounted for by sophisticated equations, such calculations are very time-consuming to do by hand. For this work computers have become indispensable. In particular, a public-domain circuit-analysis program developed at the University of California, Berkeley, during the 1970s, SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis), and various proprietary models designed for use with it are ubiquitous in engineering courses and in industry for analog circuit design. SPICE has equations for transistors, capacitors, resistors, and other components, as well as for lengths of wires and for turns in wires, and it can reduce the calculation of circuit interactions to hours from the months formerly required for hand calculations.

Digital design

      Since digital circuits involve millions of times as many components as analog circuits, much of the design work is done by copying and reusing the same circuit functions, especially by using digital design software that contains libraries of prestructured circuit components. The components available in such a library are of similar height, contain contact points in predefined locations, and have other rigid conformities so that they fit together regardless of how the computer configures a layout. While SPICE is perfectly adequate for analyzing analog circuits, with equations that describe individual components, the complexity of digital circuits requires a less-detailed approach. Therefore, digital analysis software ignores individual components for mathematical models of entire preconfigured circuit blocks (or logic functions).

      Whether analog or digital circuitry is used depends on the function of a circuit. The design and layout of analog circuits are more demanding of teamwork, time, innovation, and experience, particularly as circuit frequencies get higher, though skilled digital designers and layout engineers can be of great benefit in overseeing an automated process as well. Digital design emphasizes different skills from analog design.

Mixed-signal design

      For designs that contain both analog and digital circuitry (mixed-signal chips), standard analog and digital simulators are not sufficient. Instead, special behavioral simulators are used, employing the same simplifying idea behind digital simulators to model entire circuits rather than individual transistors. Behavioral simulators are designed primarily to speed up simulations of the analog side of a mixed-signal chip.

      The difficulty with behavioral simulation is making sure that the model of the analog circuit function is accurate. Since each analog circuit is unique, it seems as though one must design the system twice—once to design the circuitry and once to design the model for the simulator.

Fabricating ICs

Making a base wafer

 The substrate material, or base wafer, on which ICs are built is a semiconductor, such as silicon or gallium arsenide. In order to obtain consistent performance, the semiconductor must be extremely pure and a single crystal. The basic technique for creating large single crystals was discovered by the Polish chemist Jan Czochralski in 1916 and is now known as the Czochralski method. To create a single crystal of silicon by using the Czochralski method, electronic-grade silicon (refined to less than one part impurity in 100 billion) is heated to about 1,500 °C (2,700 °F) in a fused quartz crucible. Either an electron-donating element such as phosphorus or arsenic (for p-type semiconductors) or an electron-accepting element such as boron (for n-type semiconductors) is mixed in at a concentration of a few parts per billion. A small “seed” crystal, with a diameter of about 0.5 cm (0.2 inch) and a length of about 10 cm (4 inches), is attached to the end of a rod and lowered until it just penetrates the molten surface of the silicon. The rod and the crucible are then rotated in opposite directions while the rod is slowly withdrawn a few millimetres per second. (See figure—>.) Properly synchronized, these procedures result in the slow growth of a single crystal.

      After many days the single crystal can be more than 1 metre (3.3 feet) in length and 300 mm (11.8 inches) in diameter. The large ingot is then sliced like a loaf of bread into thin wafers on which numerous ICs are fabricated simultaneously. For example, Intel Corporation can make about 470 Pentium 4 chips from each 300-mm wafer. The ICs are cut and separated after fabrication.

Building layers

      All sorts of devices, such as diodes, transistors, capacitors, and resistors, can be built with p- and n-type semiconductors. It is convenient to be able to manufacture all of these different electronic components from the same few basic manufacturing steps.

      ICs are made of layers, from about 0.000005 to 0.1 mm thick, that are built on the semiconductor substrate one layer at a time, with perhaps 30 or more layers in a final chip. Creating the different electrical components on a chip is a matter of outlining exactly where areas of n- and p-type are to be located on each layer. Each layer is etched, using lines and geometric shapes in the exact locations where the material is to be deposited. Different colours represent different layers.

      A wafer can be changed in one of three fundamental ways: by deposition (that is, adding a layer), by etching or removing a layer, or by implantation (altering a layer's composition). These processes are described below. (Further details on etching are described in the section Photolithography (integrated circuit).)

Deposition

      In a process known as film deposition, a thin film of some substance is deposited onto the wafer by means of either a chemical or a physical reaction.

Chemical methods

      In one common method, known as chemical vapour deposition, the substrate is placed in a low-pressure chamber where certain gases are mixed and heated to 650–850 °C (1,200–1,550 °F) in order to form the desired solid film substance. The solid condenses from the mixed gases and “rains” evenly over the surface of a wafer. A special variant of this technique, known as epitaxy, slowly deposits silicon (or gallium arsenide) on the wafer to produce epitaxial growth of the crystal. Such films can be relatively thick (0.1 mm) and are commonly used for producing silicon-on-insulator substrates that lower the power requirements and speed the switching capabilities of CMOSs (described in the section Complementary metal-oxide semiconductors (integrated circuit)). Another variation, known as plasma-enhanced (or plasma-assisted) chemical vapour deposition, uses low pressure and high voltage to create a plasma environment. The plasma causes the gases to react and precipitate at much lower temperatures of 300 to 350 °C (600 to 650 °F) and at faster rates, but this method tends to sacrifice uniformity of deposition.

      Two more chemical methods of deposition are electrodeposition (or electroplating) and thermal oxidation. In the former the substrate is given an electrically conducting coating and placed in a liquid solution (electrolyte) containing metal ions, such as gold, copper, or nickel. A wide range of film thicknesses can be built. In thermal oxidation the substrate is heated to 800–1,100 °C (1,500–2,000 °F), which causes the surface to oxidize. This process is often used to form a thin (0.0001-mm) insulating layer of silicon dioxide.

Physical methods

      In general, physical methods of film deposition are less uniform than chemical methods; however, physical methods can be performed at lower temperatures and thus at less risk of damage to the substrate. A common physical method is sputtering. In sputtering, a wafer and a metal source are placed in a vacuum chamber, and an inert gas such as argon is introduced at low pressure. The gas is then ionized by a radio-frequency power source, and the ions are accelerated by an electric field toward the metal surface. When these high-energy ions impact, they knock some of the metal atoms loose from the surface to form a vapour. This vapour condenses on the surfaces within the chamber, including the substrate, where it forms the desired film.

      In evaporation deposition, a metal source is heated in a vacuum chamber either by passing a current through a tungsten container or by focusing an electron beam on the metal's surface. As metal atoms evaporate, they form a vapour that condenses on the cooler surface of the wafer to form a layer.

      Finally, in casting, a substance is dissolved in a solvent and sprayed on the wafer. After the solvent evaporates, an extremely thin film (perhaps a single layer of molecules) of the substance is left behind. Casting is typically used to add a photosensitive polymer coating, called the photoresist layer.

Etching

      A layer can be removed, in entirety or in part, either by etching away the material with strong chemicals or by reactive ion etching (RIE). RIE is like sputtering in the argon chamber, but the polarity is reversed and different gas mixtures are used. The atoms on the surface of the wafer fly away, leaving it bare.

Implantation

      Another method of modifying a wafer is to bombard its surface with extra atoms. This is called implantation. Enough of the atoms become deeply embedded in the surface to alter its characteristics, creating areas of n- and p-type materials. Overzealous atoms ripping through the nicely organized crystal lattice damage the structure of the wafer. After implantation the wafer is annealed (heated) to repair this damage. As a side effect of annealing, the implanted atoms usually move a little, diffusing into the surrounding material. The total area that contains implanted atoms after annealing is therefore called a diffusion layer.

      A final passivation layer is added to the top of the wafer to seal it from water and other contaminants. Holes are etched through this layer in certain locations to make electrical contact with the integrated circuitry.

Photolithography

 In order to alter specific locations on a wafer, a photoresist layer is first applied (as described in the section Deposition (integrated circuit)). Photoresist, or just resist, typically dissolves in a high-pH solution after exposure to light (including ultraviolet radiation or X rays), and this process, known as development, is controlled by using a mask. A mask is made by applying a thick deposit of chromium in a particular pattern to a glass plate. The chromium provides a shadow over most of the wafer, allowing “light” to shine through only in desired locations, as shown in the figure—>. This enables the creation of extremely small areas—depending on the wavelength of the light used—that are unprotected by the hard resist.

      After washing away the developed resist, the unprotected areas can be modified through the deposition, etching, or implantation processes described above, without affecting the rest of the wafer. Once such modifications are finished, the remaining resist is dissolved by a special solvent. This process is repeated with different masks at various layers (30 or so) to create changes to the wafer.

      The person who designs the masks for each layer is called the layout engineer, or mask designer. The selection of circuit components and connections is given to mask designers by circuit designers, but mask designers have great latitude in deciding how the end product will be created, which layers will be used to build the components, how to design the connections, how it will look, how large it will be, and how well it will perform. Successful IC development is a team effort between circuit and mask designers.

The final package

      After all the changes to the wafer have been completed, the thousands of individual IC units are sliced apart. This is called dicing the wafer. Each IC unit is now called a die. Dies resemble satellite images of cities, in which circuits look like roadways.

 Each die that passes testing is placed into a hard plastic package, as shown in the photograph—>. These plastic packages, called chips, are what one observes when looking at a computer's circuit board. The plastic packages have metal connection pins that connect the outside world (such as a computer board) to the proper contact points on the die through holes in the passivation layer.

Christopher Saint Judy Lynne Saint

Additional Reading

Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age (1997; also published as Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age, 1998), presents the interesting history of the inventions of the transistor and the integrated circuit. Christopher Saint and Judy Saint, IC Layout Basics: A Practical Guide (2002), and IC Mask Design: Essential Layout Techniques (2002), give a general audience nontechnical introductions to integrated circuit processes, layout techniques, fundamental devices, and wafer processes. Two general introductory texts for undergraduate engineering students are David A. Hodges and Horace G. Jackson, Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits, 2nd ed. (1988); and Richard S. Muller and Theodore I. Kamins, Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits, 3rd ed. (2003). Yoshio Nishi and Robert Doering (eds.), The Handbook of Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology (2000), reviews many aspects of manufacturing integrated circuits.Christopher Saint Judy Lynne Saint

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