fallacy

fallacy
/fal"euh see/, n., pl. fallacies.
1. a deceptive, misleading, or false notion, belief, etc.: That the world is flat was at one time a popular fallacy.
2. a misleading or unsound argument.
3. deceptive, misleading, or false nature; erroneousness.
4. Logic. any of various types of erroneous reasoning that render arguments logically unsound.
5. Obs. deception.
[1350-1400; < L fallacia a trick, deceit, equiv. to fallac- (s. of fallax) deceitful, fallacious + -ia -Y3; r. ME fallace < MF]
Syn. 1. misconception, delusion, misapprehension.

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logic
Introduction

      in logic, erroneous reasoning that has the appearance of soundness.

Correct and defective argument forms
      In logic an argument consists of a set of statements, the premises, whose truth supposedly supports the truth of a single statement called the conclusion of the argument. An argument is deductively valid when the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion; i.e., the conclusion must be true, because of the form of the argument, whenever the premises are true. Some arguments that fail to be deductively valid are acceptable on grounds other than formal logic, and their conclusions are supported with less than logical necessity. In other potentially persuasive arguments, the premises give no rational grounds for accepting the conclusion. These defective forms of argument are called fallacies.

      An argument may be fallacious in three ways: in its material content, through a misstatement of the facts; in its wording, through an incorrect use of terms; or in its structure (or form), through the use of an improper process of inference. As shown in the diagram,

      fallacies are correspondingly classified as (1) material, (2) verbal, and (3) formal. Groups 2 and 3 are called logical fallacies, or fallacies “in discourse,” in contrast to the substantive, or material, fallacies of group 1, called fallacies “in matter”; and groups 1 and 2, in contrast to group 3, are called informal fallacies.

Kinds of fallacies

Material fallacies
      The material fallacies are also known as fallacies of presumption, because the premises “presume” too much—they either covertly assume the conclusion or avoid the issue in view.

      The classification that is still widely used is that of Aristotle's Sophistic Refutations: (1) The fallacy of accident is committed by an argument that applies a general rule to a particular case in which some special circumstance (“accident”) makes the rule inapplicable. The truth that “men are capable of seeing” is no basis for the conclusion that “blind men are capable of seeing.” This is a special case of the fallacy of secundum quid (more fully: a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid, which means “from a saying [taken too] simply to a saying according to what [it really is]”—i.e., according to its truth as holding only under special provisos). This fallacy is committed when a general proposition is used as the premise for an argument without attention to the (tacit) restrictions and qualifications that govern it and invalidate its application in the manner at issue. (2) The converse fallacy of accident argues improperly from a special case to a general rule. Thus, the fact that a certain drug is beneficial to some sick persons does not imply that it is beneficial to all people. (3) The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion is committed when the conclusion changes the point that is at issue in the premises. Special cases of irrelevant conclusion are presented by the so-called fallacies of relevance. These include ( a) the argument ad hominem (speaking “against the man” rather than to the issue), in which the premises may only make a personal attack on a person who holds some thesis, instead of offering grounds showing why what he says is false, ( b) the argument ad populum (an appeal “to the people”), which, instead of offering logical reasons, appeals to such popular attitudes as the dislike of injustice, ( c) the argument ad misericordiam (an appeal “to pity”), as when a trial lawyer, rather than arguing for his client's innocence, tries to move the jury to sympathy for him, (d) the argument ad verecundiam (an appeal “to awe”), which seeks to secure acceptance of the conclusion on the grounds of its endorsement by persons whose views are held in general respect, ( e) the argument ad ignorantiam (an appeal “to ignorance”), which argues that something (e.g., extrasensory perception) is so since no one has shown that it is not so, and (f) the argument ad baculum (an appeal “to force”), which rests on a threatened or implied use of force to induce acceptance of its conclusion. (4) The fallacy of circular argument, known as petitio principii (“begging the question”), occurs when the premises presume, openly or covertly, the very conclusion that is to be demonstrated (example: “Gregory always votes wisely.” “But how do you know?” “Because he always votes Libertarian.”). A special form of this fallacy, called a vicious circle, or circulus in probando (“arguing in a circle”), occurs in a course of reasoning typified by the complex argument in which a premise p1 is used to prove p2; p2 is used to prove p3; and so on, until pn − 1 is used to prove pn; then pn is subsequently used in a proof of p1, and the whole series p1, p2, . . . , pn is taken as established (example: “McKinley College's baseball team is the best in the association [ pn = p3]; they are the best because of their strong batting potential [ p2]; they have this potential because of the ability of Jones, Crawford, and Randolph at the bat [ p1].” “But how do you know that Jones, Crawford, and Randolph are such good batters?” “Well, after all, these men are the backbone of the best team in the association [ p3 again].”). Strictly speaking, petitio principii is not a fallacy of reasoning but an ineptitude in argumentation: thus the argument from p as a premise to p as conclusion is not deductively invalid but lacks any power of conviction, since no one who questioned the conclusion could concede the ILpremise. (5) The fallacy of false cause (non causa pro causa) mislocates the cause of one phenomenon in another that is only seemingly related. The most common version of this fallacy, called post hoc ergo propter hoc (“after which hence by which”), mistakes temporal sequence for causal connection—as when a misfortune is attributed to a “malign event,” like the dropping of a mirror. Another version of this fallacy arises in using reductio ad absurdum reasoning: concluding that a statement is false if its addition to a set of premises leads to a contradiction. This mode of reasoning can be correct—e.g., concluding that two lines do not intersect if the assumption that they do intersect leads to a contradiction. What is required to avoid the fallacy is to verify independently that each of the original premises is true. Thus, one might fallaciously infer that Williams, a philosopher, does not watch television, because adding

      UF 8915 4pt,18ptA: Williams, a philosopher, watches television.

      to the premises

      UF 8915 4pt,18ptP1: No philosopher engages in intellectually trivial activities.

      UF 8915 4pt,18ptP2: Watching television is an intellectually trivial activity.

      leads to a contradiction. Yet it might be that either P1 or P2 or both are false. It might even be the case that Williams is not a philosopher. Indeed, one might even take A as evidence for the falsity of either P1 or P2 or as evidence that Williams is not really a philosopher. (6) The fallacy of many questions (plurimum interrogationum) consists in demanding or giving a single answer to a question when this answer could either be divided (example: “Do you like the twins?” “Neither yes nor no; but Ann yes and Mary no.”) or refused altogether, because a mistaken presupposition is involved (example: “Have you stopped beating your wife?”). (7) The fallacy of non sequitur (“it does not follow”) occurs when there is not even a deceptively plausible appearance of valid reasoning, because there is an obvious lack of connection between the given premises and the conclusion drawn from them. Some authors, however, identify non sequitur with the fallacy of the consequent (see below Formal fallacies (fallacy)).

Verbal fallacies
      These fallacies, called fallacies of ambiguity, arise when the conclusion is achieved through an improper use of words. The principal instances are as follows: (1) Equivocation occurs when a word or phrase is used in one sense in one premise and in another sense in some other needed premise or in the conclusion (example: “The loss made Jones mad [= angry]; mad [= insane] people should be institutionalized; so Jones should be institutionalized.”). The figure-of-speech fallacy is the special case arising from confusion between the ordinary sense of a word and its metaphorical, figurative, or technical employment (example: “For the past week Joan has been living on the heights of ecstasy.” “And what is her address there?”). (2) Amphiboly occurs when the grammar of a statement is such that several distinct meanings can obtain (example: “The governor says, ‘Save soap and waste paper.' So soap is more valuable than paper.”). (3) Accent is a counterpart of amphiboly arising when a statement can bear distinct meanings depending on which word is stressed (example: “Men are considered equal.” “Men are considered equal.”). (4) Composition occurs when the premise that the parts of a whole are of a certain nature is improperly used to infer that the whole itself must also be of this nature (example: a story made up of good paragraphs is thus said to be a good story). (5) Division—the reverse of composition—occurs when the premise that a collective whole has a certain nature is improperly used to infer that a part of this whole must also be of this nature (example: in a speech that is long-winded it is presumed that every sentence is long). But this fallacy and its predecessor can be viewed as versions of equivocation, in which the distributive use of a term—i.e., its application to the elements of an aggregate (example: “the crowd,” viewed as individuals)—is confused with its collective use (“the crowd,” as a unitary whole); compare “The crowd were filing through the turnstile” with “The crowd was compressed into the space of a city block.”

Formal fallacies
      Formal fallacies are deductively invalid arguments that typically commit an easily recognizable logical error. A classic case is Aristotle's fallacy of the consequent, relating to reasoning from premises of the form “If p1, then p2.” The fallacy has two forms: (1) denial of the antecedent, in which one mistakenly argues from the premises “If p1, then p2” and “not- p1” (symbolized fallacy p1) to the conclusion “not- p2” (example: “If George is a man of good faith, he can be entrusted with this office; but George is not a man of good faith; therefore, George cannot be entrusted with this office”), and (2) affirmation of the consequent, in which one mistakenly argues from the premises “If p1, then p2” and “ p2” to the conclusion “ p1” (example: “If Amos was a prophet, then he had a social conscience; he had a social conscience; hence, Amos was a prophet”). Most of the traditionally considered formal fallacies, however, relate to the syllogism. One example may be cited, that of the fallacy of illicit major (or minor) premise, which violates the rules for “distribution.” (A term is said to be distributed when reference is made to all members of the class. For example, in “Some crows are not friendly,” reference is made to all friendly things but not to all crows.) The fallacy arises when a major (or minor) term that is undistributed in the premise is distributed in the conclusion (example: “All tubers are high-starch foods [undistributed]; no squashes are tubers; therefore, no squashes are high-starch foods [distributed]”).

Nicholas Rescher Morton L. Schagrin

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Universalium. 2010.

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